Stabilized Step Function Opsin Proteins and Methods of Using the Same

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are compositions comprising non-human animals comprising neurons expressing stabilized step function opsin proteins on neural plasma membranes and methods of using the same to selectively depolarize neurons residing in microcircuits of the pre-frontal cortex to affect one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/410,704 filed on Nov. 5, 2010, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/410,711 filed on Nov. 5, 2010, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/511,905 filed on Jul. 26, 2011, the disclosures of each of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This application pertains to compositions comprising non-human animal cells expressing stabilized step function opsin (SSFO) proteins on their plasma membranes and methods of using the same to selectively depolarize neurons residing in microcircuits of the pre-frontal cortex to affect one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal.

BACKGROUND

Optogenetics is the combination of genetic and optical methods used to control specific events in targeted cells of living tissue, even within freely moving mammals and other animals, with the temporal precision (millisecond-timescale) needed to keep pace with functioning intact biological systems. The hallmark of optogenetics is the introduction of fast light-activated channel proteins to the plasma membranes of target neuronal cells that allow temporally precise manipulation of neuronal membrane potential while maintaining cell-type resolution through the use of specific targeting mechanisms. Among the microbial opsins which can be used to investigate the function of neural systems are the channelrhodopsins (ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, and SFOs) used to promote depolarization in response to light. In just a few short years, the field of optogenetics has furthered the fundamental scientific understanding of how specific cell types contribute to the function of biological tissues such as neural circuits in vivo. Moreover, on the clinical side, optogenetics-driven research has led to insights into Parkinson's disease and other neurological and psychiatric disorders.

However, in spite of these advances, the neurophysiological substrates of most psychiatric disorders remain poorly understood, despite rapidly emerging information on genetic factors that are associated with complex behavioral phenotypes such as those observed in autism and schizophrenia (Cichon et al., The American Journal of Psychiatry 166(5):540 (2009); O'Donovan et al., Human Genetics 126(1): 3 (2009)). One remarkable emerging principle is that a very broad range of seemingly unrelated genetic abnormalities can give rise to the same class of psychiatric phenotype (such as social behavior dysfunction; Folstein & Rosen-Sheidley, Nature Reviews 2(12):943 (2001)). This surprising pattern has pointed to the need to identify simplifying circuit-level insights that could unify diverse genetic factors under a common pathophysiological principle.

One such circuit-level hypothesis is that elevation in the ratio of cortical cellular excitation and inhibition (cellular E/I balance) could give rise to the social and cognitive deficits of autism (Rubenstein, Current Opinion in Neurology 23(2):118; Rubenstein & Merzenich, Genes, Brain, and Behavior 2(5):255 (2003)). This hypothesis could potentially unify diverse streams of pathophysiological evidence, including the observation that many autism-related genes are linked to gain-of-function phenotypes in ion channels and synaptic proteins (Bourgeron, Current Opinion in Neurobiology 19 (2), 231 (2009)) and that ˜30% of autistic patients also show clinically apparent seizures (Gillberg & Billstedt, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102(5):321 (2000)). However, it has not been clear if such an imbalance (to be relevant to disease symptoms) would be operative on the chronic (e.g. during development) or the acute timescale. Furthermore, this hypothesis is by no means universally accepted, in part because it has not yet been susceptible to direct testing. Pharmacological and electrical interventions lack the necessary specificity to selectively favor activity (in a manner fundamentally distinct from receptor modulation) of neocortical excitatory cells over inhibitory cells, whether in the clinical setting or in freely behaving experimental mammals during social and cognitive tasks. It is perhaps related to challenges such as this that the social and cognitive deficits of autism and schizophrenia have proven largely unresponsive to conventional psychopharmacology treatments in the clinic.

Existing optogenetic methods are also inadequate for this purpose; driving coordinated spikes selectively in excitatory or inhibitory cells with a channelrhodopsin is feasible, but not well suited to the sparse coding and asynchronous firing patterns of neocortical pyramidal cells. Moreover, the continuous presence of an optical fiber and other hardware poses challenges for prolonged behavioral tests with fast and spatially complex movements typical of social behavior and cognitive measures (for example in contextual conditioning). Instead, selectively favoring excitation of one population over another with a bistable step-function opsin (SFO) gene product could partially address these challenges, since the targeted population would not be driven with coordinated spikes, but merely sensitized to native inputs that can be sparse and asynchronous. Use of SFOs also has the potential to address the hardware challenge, since the orders-of-magnitude greater light sensitivity characteristic of SFOs could in theory allow non-brain penetrating light delivery, and the persistent action of the bistable SFOs after light-off could allow hardware-free behavioral testing. However, the known SFOs (C128A,S,T and D156A) are not stable enough to produce constant photocurrent after a single light flash over the many minutes required for complex behavioral testing.

What is needed, therefore, is an optogenetic tool which would permit direct testing of the E/I balance hypothesis in the prefrontal cortex both in vitro and in vivo in freely-moving mice. Such a light-activated protein could permit investigation of the effect of bi-directional modulation of prefrontal cellular E/I balance on both conditioned and innate behaviors relevant for cognitive and social dysfunction, as well as probe the resulting effects on circuit physiology and quantitative transmission of information.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Provided herein are animal cells, non-human animals, brain slices comprising cells expressing stabilized step function opsin proteins on their plasma membranes and methods of using the same to selectively depolarize neurons residing in microcircuits of the pre-frontal cortex.

Accordingly, provided herein are non-human animals comprising a first light-activated cation channel protein expressed in neurons of the pre-frontal cortex of the animal, wherein the protein is capable of inducing depolarizing current in the neurons by light and exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength, wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes; and wherein the activation of the protein in the pre-frontal cortex neurons induces changes in social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the animal.

In some aspects, there is provided a brain slice comprising neurons of the pre-frontal cortex, wherein a light-activated protein is expressed in the neurons of the pre-frontal cortex, wherein the protein is capable of inducing depolarizing current in the neurons by light and exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes.

In another aspect, there is provided a method for identifying a chemical compound that inhibits the depolarization of excitatory or inhibitory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing excitatory or inhibitory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal comprising a first light-activated protein cation channel protein expressed on the cell membrane of the neurons of the pre-frontal cortex of the animal, wherein the protein is capable of mediating a depolarizing current in the neurons when the neurons are illuminated with light, wherein the protein exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes; wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2; wherein the activation of the protein in the pre-frontal cortex neurons induces changes in social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the animal; (b) measuring an excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or an inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) in response to selectively depolarizing the excitatory neurons comprising the light-activated protein; (c) contacting the excitatory or inhibitory neurons with a chemical compound; and (d) measuring the excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or the inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) to determine if contacting the excitatory neurons with the chemical compound inhibits the depolarization of the neurons.

In another aspect, there is provided a method for identifying a chemical compound that restores a social behavior, communication, and/or conditioned behavior in a non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing excitatory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal comprising a light-activated protein cation channel protein expressed on the cell membrane of the neurons, wherein the protein is capable of inducing a depolarizing current in the neurons when the neurons are illuminated with light, wherein the protein exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes; and wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2, wherein depolarizing the excitatory neuron inhibits one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal; (c) administering a chemical compound to the non-human animal; and (d) determining if the administration of the chemical compound to the non-human animal restores said one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal.

The present disclosure relates to optical control over nervous system disorders (such as disorders associated with social dysfunction), as described herein. While the present disclosure is not necessarily limited in these contexts, various aspects of the disclosure may be appreciated through a discussion of examples using these and other contexts.

Various embodiments of the present disclosure relate to an optogenetic system or method that correlates temporal, spatio and/or cell-type control over a neural circuit with measurable metrics. For instance, various metrics or symptoms might be associated with a neurological disorder (such as a neurological disorder exhibiting various symptoms of social dysfunction). The optogenetic system targets a neural circuit within a subject/patient for selective control thereof. The optogenetic system involves monitoring the subject/patient for the metrics or symptoms associated with the neurological disorder. In this manner, the optogenetic system can provide detailed information about the neural circuit, its function and/or the neurological disorder.

Consistent with the embodiments discussed herein, particular embodiments relate to studying and probing disorders. Other embodiments relate to the identification and/or study of phenotypes and endophenotypes. Still other embodiments relate to the identification of treatment targets.

Aspects of the present disclosure are directed toward the artificial inducement of disorder/disease states on a fast-temporal time scale. These aspects allow for study of disease states in otherwise healthy animals. This can be particularly useful for diseases that are poorly understood and otherwise difficult to accurately model in live animals. For instance, it can be difficult to test and/or study disease states due to the lack of available animals exhibiting the disease state. Moreover, certain embodiments allow for reversible disease states, which can be particularly useful for establishing baseline/control points for testing and/or for testing the effects of a treatment on the same animal when exhibiting the disease state and when not exhibiting the disease state. Various other possibilities exist, some of which are discussed in more detail herein.

Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to using an artificially induced disorder/disease state for the study of disease states in otherwise healthy animals. This can be particularly useful for diseases that are poorly understood and otherwise difficult to accurately model in living animals. For instance, it can be difficult to test and/or study disease states due to the lack of available animals exhibiting the disease state. Moreover, certain embodiments allow for reversible disease states, which can be particularly useful in establishing baseline/control points for testing and/or for testing the effects of a treatment on the same animal when exhibiting the disease state and when not exhibiting the disease state.

Certain aspects of the present disclosure are directed to a method that includes modifying (e.g., elevating or lowering) an excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance in a targeted neural circuit in a prefrontal cortex of a subject/patient. For instance, the E/I balance is changed to a level that preserves the responsiveness of the targeted neural circuit to intrinsic electrical activity while symptoms of a disorder are temporally increased. While the E/I balance is changed, a stimulus is introduce to the subject/patient and the symptoms of the disorder are monitored. The subject can be a test animal that is healthy, or an animal model of a disorder. The result of the manipulation is either a transient recapitulation of disease symptoms (in an otherwise healthy animal) or alleviation of symptoms (in an animal model of a neurological disorder). In certain more specific embodiments, the monitoring of the symptoms also includes assessing the efficacy of the stimulus in mitigating the symptoms of the disorder. Various other possibilities exist, some of which are discussed in more detail herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various example embodiments may be more completely understood in consideration of the following description and the accompanying drawing, in which:

FIG. 1: Kinetic and absorbance properties of a fully stabilized SFO. (a) Normalized absorbance spectra of dark-adapted wild type ChR2, ChR2-C128S, ChR2-D156A and ChR2-C128S/D156A (SSFO). (b-d) Absorption spectra recorded after illumination with 450 nm light for 30 seconds. Absorption difference spectra taken from the corresponding absorption spectra are shown in the insets. Spectra were collected at the indicated times after the end of illumination; note prominent recovery after 3 min in the single mutants, in contrast to the double mutant. (e) Simplified photocycle scheme; in C128/D156 mutants the transition P520 to P480 is likely slowed down or blocked, avoiding the desensitized state Des470 which cannot be reactivated with 470 nm light. (f-h) Monochromatic absorption changes recorded at the indicated wavelength before, during and after illumination with 450 nm light for all three variants, highlighting the distinct stability of the double mutant.

FIG. 2 depicts Stable step-modulation of neural activity in multiple cell types in vitro and in vivo. (a) Activation (top left) and deactivation (bottom left) spectra recorded from cultured neurons expressing ChR2 (C128S/D156A). Gray horizontal bars indicate light pulses and trace colors indicate wavelength of light used in each light pulse; summary spectra (right) for measurements of activation and deactivation of ChR2(C128S/D156A) are shown. (b) Monoexponential fits of photocurrent decay in cells expressing ChR2(C 128S/D 156A) (black; −t=29.3 min) or ChR2(D156A) (gray; −t=6.9 min). (c) Representative whole-cell patch clamp recording of photocurrent in cultured hippocampal neuron expressing ChR2(C128S/D156A; “SSFO”). Bars indicate activation and deactivation light pulses; recording carried out in the naturalistic setting of incoming synaptic excitatory postsynaptic currents (epscs). (d) Whole-cell photocurrent responses of a cultured neuron expressing SSFO to 470 nm light pulses of indicated power (left). Pulse lengths were 2 s (gray horizontal bar traces) or 5 s (black horizontal bar traces). Dashed lines mark light pulse termination. Time constants for activation (T) are displayed on a log-log plot versus light power (n=27 recordings from 5 cells; middle). Regardless of light power, the calculated number of incident photons arriving at each cell for photocurrents to reach the exponential curve constant (63% of Imax) for that cell was constant (right). Each point represents a photon number from a single recording at a given light power (Methods). (e) Optrode recording configuration. 470 nm and 561 nm lasers were coupled to an optical fiber through a fiber coupler. A tungsten electrode was attached to the optical fiber with a 400 μm 1 lm projection past the fiber tip and advanced into the brain. (f) Activation of excitatory neurons using CaMKIIα-SSFO in anaesthetized animals stably elevates neuronal activity within the injected loci. Starred example trace is plotted below the instantaneous spike-rate heat maps calculated with 2 s moving average. Each heat-map line represents one sweep at indicated depth (3 sweeps at each site); 470 nm activation pulse and 561 nm deactivation pulses are indicated by blue and green bars, respectively. (g) Activation of PV-positive interneurons with PV::Cre/DIO-SSFO inhibits local network activity within the injected loci. Starred example trace is plotted below the instantaneous spike rate heat maps. (h) Average spike rates of traces showing significant differences in activity pre- and post-stimulation before activation, after activation, and after deactivation in CK-SSFO (squares) and PV::Cre/DIO-SSFO (circles) animals (n=2 mice, >5 recording sites per animal). (i) Representative 10-min long recording demonstrating sustained activity of SSFO. Instantaneous spike-rate heat maps are shown for activity of isolated single units indicated as Neuron 1 and Neuron 2; waveforms of indicated units are plotted next to corresponding traces.

FIG. 3 depicts elevated, but not reduced, prefrontal E/I balance leads to behavioral impairment. (a) Wild-type or PV::Cre transgenic mice injected with control CaMKIIα-eYFP, CaMKIIα-SSFO, or DIO-SSFO virus in mPFC and chronically implanted with fiber optic connector were subjected to fear conditioning and social exploration tests. (b) Confocal image from a mouse injected with CaMKIIα-SSFO-eYFP virus shows expression in prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) cortex. (c) Representative images of prefrontal slices from PV::Cre/DIO-SSFO and CaMKIIα-SSFO mice stained for c-fos 90 min following a 2 s 470 nm light pulse; Bar=25 um. Graph shows average c-fos positive cell counts in mPFC of CaMKIIα-SSFO, and PV::Cre/DIO-SSFO animals. (d) Summary data for social exploration in control, CaMKIIα-SSFO, and PV::Cre/DIO-SSFO mice of a juvenile intruder in the home cage. CaMKIIα-SSFO mice showed a significant reduction in social exploration. (e) Mice administered one 2 s 470 nm pulse of light prior to fear conditioning were tested the next day for freezing in response to the conditioned context or to a conditioned auditory cue; CaMKIIα-SSFO mice were significantly impaired in freezing response to both conditioned stimuli. On the following day, mice were reconditioned without optical stimulation and freezing was evaluated 24 h later. All mice showed similar freezing behavior in the absence of light. (f) Open-field exploration is indistinguishable in CaMKIIα-SSFO (blue) and CaMKIIα-EYFP (gray) control mice, before (Test 1) and after (Test light activation. Example track from animal expressing CaMKIIα-SSFO for Test 1 (top) and Test two (bottom) are shown. (g) Exploration of a novel object over a 10-minute period is similar in mice expressing CaMKIIα-SSFO (black) and CaMKIIα-EYFP (gray). (h) Fluorescence images of coronal sections from wild-type mice injected with CaMKIIα-SSFO in PFC (top) or V1 (bottom). (i) Social behavior in the 3-chamber test is impaired following a 2 s 470 nm light pulse in mice expressing CaMKIIα-SSFO in PFC (n=6), but not in control mice (n=8) or mice expressing CaMKIIα-SSFO in V1 (n=8). All bar graphs depict mean±s.e.m. (* p<0.05, ** p<0.005, *** p<0.0005). (j) High magnification confocal images of a 40 μm coronal brain slice from a PV::Cre mouse bilaterally injected with Cre-dependent AAV5-EF1 a-DIO-SSFO-EYFP virus and stained with anti-parvalbumin antibody. Arrows indicate double-labeled PV neurons identified by membrane-bound EYFP labeling; arrowhead shows PV-positive neuron that did not express detectable levels of SSFO-EYFP. (k) Low-power confocal image of the same slice shown in (j), demonstrating spatially restricted expression of the DIO-SSFO virus in mPFC. (l) Percent double-labeled cells out of the entire PV+ cell population, and out of the entire YFP+ cell population as counted from high-magnification confocal z-stacks (n=7 slices from 4 mice; total of 617 PV+ cells counted, 191 YFP+ cells, 169 double-labeled cells). This number is consistent with ˜40% PV neurons expressing Cre recombinase in this line and approximately 50% transduction efficiency of the virus. Since expression of PV is not uniform across cells, some PV+ neurons might express undetectable levels of PV but still contain sufficient levels of Cre for activating DIO-SSFO expression. (m) Quantification of c-fos immunofluorescence in cortical and subcortical regions from animals injected unilaterally with CaMKIIα::SSFO-EYFP virus (gray; n=2 mice) and controls injected unilaterally with CaMKIIα::EYFP virus (light gray; n=2 mice). Shown are data from the ipsilateral (injected) and contralateral (uninjected) hemispheres. Error bars indicate mean±s.e.m p=0.044). (n) Two representative traces showing open-field exploration in a control mouse expressing CaMKIIα::EYFP in mPFC, pre-activation and post-activation with a 2 s 473 nm light pulse. Neither locomotion velocity nor time spent exploring the center of the open field was altered in CaMKIIα::SSFO and CaMKII α::EYFP animals after a 2 s 473 nm light pulse (bottom; p>0.1, for both compared to pre-activation; paired t-test), indicating that SSFO activation is not anxiogenic.

FIG. 4 depicts SSFO activation in pyramidal cells increases network activity and impairs information transmission through principal neurons. (a) Whole cell recording from a layer 2/3 pyramidal neuron expressing SSFO in a prefrontal cortical slice from a mouse injected with AAV5-CaMKIIα-SSFO-EYFP. Activation with 470 nm light triggered depolarization of the recorded cell. Inset compares expanded 2 s periods pre-activation (1), post-activation (2) and post-deactivation (3). (b) Whole cell recording in a non-expressing pyramidal neuron from a slice expressing CaMKIIα::SSFO-EYFP shows increased synaptic activity (top) following a 1 s 470 nm light pulse, which is eliminated by excitatory synaptic blockers CNQX (10 μM) and APV (25 μM; bottom). Inset compares activity pre-activation (1), post-activation (2), and post-deactivation (3). (c) Sample trace showing response of a representative pyramidal neuron in a PV::SSFO slice (expressing DIO-SSFO-EYFP) at baseline and during 5510 activation in PV cells in the slice (between blue and yellow light pulses). Inset compares three 5 s periods before activation (1), after activation (2), and after deactivation (3). (d) Activity of PV cells after activation with SSFO.

FIG. 5 depicts impaired cellular information processing in elevated but not reduced cellular E/I balance. (a) Representative traces showing response of a representative CaMKIIα::SSFO-eYFP expressing cell to injection of an identical defined pattern of sEPSCs before (top) and after (bottom) blue light activation. Resting membrane potential for each trace is indicated. (b) Input-output curve for a pyramidal neuron expressing SSFO, showing reduced response to higher sEPSC rates after SSFO activation (pre-stimulation: black; post-stimulation: gray; error bars show s.e.m). (c) Cell-by-cell reduction in transmitted mutual (EPSC-spike) information in 6 individual pyramidal cells expressing SSFO following the is 470 nm pulse. Average MI is shown in black (mean±s.e.m; p=0.0063, Student's t-test; reduction in mutation information between spike rate and injected sEPSC rate obtained within 125 ms windows). (d) Representative traces showing responses of a pyramidal neuron from a slice expressing DIO-SSFO-eYFP to an identical injection of sEPSCs as in a before (top) and after (bottom) blue light activation. Resting membrane potential for each trace is indicated. (e) Input-output curve for a pyramidal neuron in a PV::SSFO slice, showing linear reduction in gain after SSFO activation in PV neurons (pre-stimulation: black; post-stimulation: blue; error bars show s.e.m). (f) Cell-by-cell summary data showing no significant reduction in pyramidal cell transmitted information, despite spike suppression, after a 1 s 470 nm pulse that triggered activation of DIO-SSFO in PV neurons. Mean MI is shown in black. (g) Mean mutual information across cells in baseline vs. SSFO-activated conditions across a range of time bin widths used for calculating mutual information. For these comparisons, the bin width of input sEPSC rate was kept constant at 50 Hz. Asterisks indicate the significance of the change in mutual information in SSFO-activated conditions (h) Comparison of mean change in mutual information (SSFO-activation minus baseline) in cells recorded from slices expressing CaMKIIα::SSFO or PV::SSFO. Asterisks indicate the significance of the difference in magnitude of the change in mutual information for CaMKIIα::SSFO vs. PV::SSFO. (i) Same as in (g), but with varying input sEPSC rate bins. Here the time bin width was kept constant at 125 ms. (j) Same as in (h), but with varying input sEPSC rate bins. All bar graphs depict mean±s.e.m. (* p<0.05; ** p<0.01).

FIG. 6 depicts elevated cellular E/I balance in mPFC drives baseline gamma rhythmicity in freely-moving, socially impaired mice. (a) Wild-type mice injected with CaMKIIα::SSFO or CaMKIIα::EYFP were implanted with a non-brain-penetrating fiberoptic connector via a small craniotomy at the time of virus injection. (b) Representative image of viral expression of SSFO-eYFP in PL cortex in a mouse implanted with non-brain-penetrating fiberoptic connector. (c) c-fos positive cell counts in PFC of control (CaMKIIα::EYFP) mice or CaMKIIα::SSFO mice, 90 min after activation with a 2 s 470 nm light pulse. (d) Freezing behavior assessed in non-brain-penetrating implanted mice that received a 2 s 470 nm light pulse immediately prior to the conditioning session. Freezing was measured immediately following the conditioning session (Immediate), 24 h later (Test 1), and then 24 h following a second fear conditioning session in which no light was delivered (Test 2). (e) Social exploration was measured either with no light activation (Test 1) or following a 2 s 470 nm light pulse (Test 2). (f) Implantable chronic multisite optrode (CMO) for awake, behaving recordings in mouse M2 and PFC. Arrowheads indicate wire termination sites; arrow shows cleaved end of fiberoptic connector. (g) Electrolytic lesions mark the sites from which recordings were taken in a mouse expressing CaMKIIα::SSFO. (h) Social exploration (left) and novel object exploration (right) before (gray left vertical bar) and after (blue right vertical bar) activation with 470 nm light in the three mice in which CMO recordings were conducted (n=3 mice). (i) Multiunit activity from two channels simultaneously recorded during an activation/deactivation protocol. Blue light and yellow light were delivered as indicated. Channels with significant multiunit modulation (bottom) were selected for spectral analysis. (j) Average increase in MUA rate on channels within the expressing region (blue right vertical bar; n=4 channels in 3 mice), compared with channels that were outside the expressing region (gray left vertical bar; n=4 channels in 3 mice). (k) LFP wavelet spectrogram from an un-modulated channel. Example traces are shown for the baseline, activation and deactivation periods. Average wavelet spectra for the three indicated periods (n=5 trials in 1 mouse) and population data of power change in 3 frequency ranges (inset; n=3 mice) are shown. (l) LFP wavelet spectrogram from a modulated channel. Example traces are shown for the baseline, activation and deactivation periods. Average wavelet spectra for the three indicated periods (n=5 trials in 1 mouse) and population data (inset; n=3 mice) are shown, demonstrating a specific increase in gamma rhythmicity after SSFO activation in PFC pyramidal neurons. All bar graphs depict mean±s.e.m. Power spectra in (k), (l) are averaged from 5 trials, shaded areas indicate standard deviation across recordings. (* p<0.05; ** p<0.005).

FIG. 7 depicts locomoter behavior in a novel open field behavioral test. (a) Open-field behavior of mice expressing CaMKIIα::SSFO in mPFC pre-activation (dark gray bars; 2.5 min) and post-activation (light gray bars; 2.5 min) with 1 s 473 nm light. Track length, % time in center, and % time in the periphery are shown (n=3 mice). A yellow light pulse was applied after the second 2.5 min period to deactivate SSFO. (b) Average power spectra, measured pre-activation (black), post-activation (dark gray) and post-deactivation (light gray) from channels determined to arise from electrodes placed in the virus-expressing mPFC region (n=3 mice, shaded areas indicate s.e.m across mice). (c) Average power spectra measured from channels in i during the social behavior test in trials without light activation of SSFO (gray) and with activation (light gray). (d) As in (b), for novel-object exploration experiments (n=3 mice, shaded areas indicate s.e.m across mice). Note that unmodulated channels did not show significant changes in power spectrum following light activation.

FIG. 8 depicts increase in power at gamma frequency under high light density. (a) voltage clamp experiment with corresponding spectra for IPSCs recorded at 0 mV and for EPSCs at −60 mV (b) Change in power of synaptic activity within the indicated frequency bins recorded in mPFC pyramidal neurons during a 20 s pulse of 560 nm light at the indicated light power densities. Power differences are shown between baseline (pre-light) period to light-on period when voltage clamping the cells to −60 mV or 0 mV, or in current clamp (CC) mode. Strongest gamma-modulation is evident at the highest light power density, and is strongest in 0 mV and CC recordings. (c) Relative gamma power for the three light powers in the three recording configurations from (b).

FIG. 9 depicts inhibition of PFC excitatory or inhibitory cells. (a) Wild-type mice bilaterally injected with CaMKIIα::eNpHR3.0, PV::Cre mice bilaterally injected with EF1α::D10-eNpHR3.0, and control mice bilaterally injected with CaMKIIα-EYFP were tested in social exploration in the home cage (a; n=6 for all conditions) and the three-chamber social test (b; n=3, 5, and 6, respectively). Social behavior in the home cage was not affected under these conditions (a; p>0.5 for both NpHR3.0 groups compared with controls, unpaired t-test) and all three groups showed similar social preference in the three chamber social test (b; p>0.5 for both NpHR3.0 groups compared with controls, unpaired t-test) and significantly preferred the social chamber (b; p<0.05, paired t-test). Due to expression penetrance, the inhibition of PV cells in these experiments is expected to leave activity in the vast majority of inhibitory neurons (and even PV neurons) unchanged.

FIG. 10 depicts combinatorial optogenetics in behaving mammals: rescue of elevated E/I-balance social behavior. (a) Action spectra of SSFO and C1V1-E122T/E162T (C1V1). Vertical lines indicate stimulation wavelengths used in the experiments. (b) Experiment design and pulse patterns; no-light control was used for baseline behavior; 2 s 470 nm light was used to activate SSFO, transiently activating CIV1 only during the light pulse; 10 Hz 470 nm was used to co-activate SSFO and C1V1; 10 Hz 590 nm activated only C1V1. (c) Mice expressing CaMKIIα::SSFO showed significant social preference at baseline, but exhibited social dysfunction after either 2 s 470 nm activation or during 10 Hz 470 nm activation. (d) Mice expressing both CaMKIIα::SSFO and (DIO) PV::C1V1 showed impaired social behavior after a 2 s 470 nm pulse, but displayed restored social behavior during the 10 Hz 470 nm light stimulation. Activation of C1V1 alone with 10 Hz 590 nm pulses did not impair social behavior.

FIG. 11 depicts combinatorial optical control of mPFC cellular E/I balance: control experiments. Diagrams illustrate the light-stimulation protocols used in 4 different experiments using CaMKIIα::YFP mice. In all four experiments, light stimulation had no effect on the significant preference of these control mice to spend time in the chamber in which the novel conspecific mouse was located (n=8 mice).

FIG. 12 depicts a flow diagram for testing of a disease model, consistent with various 10 embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 depicts a model for assessing treatments of various nervous system disorders, consistent with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

While the present disclosure is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specifics thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawing and will be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the intention is not to limit the present disclosure to the particular embodiments described. On the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternative falling within the scope of the present disclosure including aspects defined in the claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This invention provides, inter alia, animal cells, non-human animals, and brain slices comprising cells expressing stabilized step function opsin proteins on their plasma membranes, and methods of using the stabilized step function opsin proteins to selectively depolarize excitatory or inhibitory neurons residing in the same microcircuit in the pre-frontal cortex. The step function opsins, or SFOs, are ChR2 light-activated cation channel proteins that can induce prolonged stable excitable states in neurons upon exposure to blue light and then be reversed upon exposure to green or yellow light. The SFOs were developed to implement bistable changes in excitability of targeted populations operating on timescales up to 4 orders of magnitude longer than that of wild type (wt) ChR2 for more stable state modulation (SFOs: up to 10-100 seconds). While these opsin genes delivered a new kind of optogenetic control complementary to that of conventional channelrhodopsins designed to control individual action potentials, the timescale was still not suitable for evaluating prolonged and complex mammalian behaviors over many minutes.

Subsequent work by the inventors has further developed the initial SFO concept, with mutation of the C128 proton networking partner D156 for additional extension of the photocycle and lifetime of the open state. This “stabilized step function opsin” (SSFO) protein possesses unique physiochemical properties which permit experimental manipulation of cortical E/I elevations and the ability to monitor gamma oscillations in cortical slices. This new tool, known as a stabilized step function opsin (SSFO), enables stable circuit modulation for time periods that are sufficient for temporally precise and complex behavioral experiments over many minutes in the absence of ongoing light activation, external fiber optic attachments, and even without any optical hardware brain penetration at all. Additionally, due to the phenomena of photon integration—a property that renders neurons expressing the SSFO extremely light sensitive—cells expressing these proteins on their plasma membranes are able to be activated with light pulses that can have a light power density in the low μW/mm⁻² range and at least 3 mm deep into brain tissue from the light source. These unique light-sensitive step function opsin proteins can be expressed in either excitatory or inhibitory neural circuits, such as in the prefrontal cortex of nonhuman animals, which can then be depolarized in response to light having particular wavelengths, thus permitting experimental manipulation of cortical E/I balances. Furthermore, brain slices from non-human animals containing cortical excitatory or inhibitory neurons expressing the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein can be used to search for chemical compounds which can selectively inhibit the depolarization of either excitatory or inhibitory neurons residing within a neural circuit. These cortical neurons may be responsible for or involved with the social and cognitive behavioral defects associated with neurological disorders such as schizophrenia and/or autism spectrum disorder.

General Techniques

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology, biochemistry, nucleic acid chemistry, and immunology, which are well known to those skilled in the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature, such as, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, second edition (Sambrook et al., 1989) and Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, third edition (Sambrook and Russel, 2001), (jointly referred to herein as “Sambrook”); Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., 1987, including supplements through 2001); PCR: The Polymerase Chain Reaction, (Mullis et al., eds., 1994); Harlow and Lane (1988) Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Publications, New York; Harlow and Lane (1999) Using Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (jointly referred to herein as “Harlow and Lane”), Beaucage et al. eds., Current Protocols in Nucleic Acid Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2000), Handbook of Experimental Immunology, 4^(th) edition (D. M. Weir & C. C. Blackwell, eds., Blackwell Science Inc., 1987); and Gene Transfer Vectors for Mammalian Cells (J. M. Miller & M. P. Calos, eds., 1987).

DEFINITIONS

As used herein, the singular form “a”, “an”, and “the” includes plural references unless indicated otherwise.

An “animal” can be a vertebrate, such as any common laboratory model organism, or a mammal. Mammals include, but are not limited to, humans and non-human primates, farm animals, sport animals, pets, mice, rats, and other rodents.

An “amino acid substitution” or “mutation” as used herein means that at least one amino acid component of a defined amino acid sequence is altered or substituted with another amino acid leading to the protein encoded by that amino acid sequence having altered activity or expression levels within a cell.

It is intended that every maximum numerical limitation given throughout this specification includes every lower numerical limitation, as if such lower numerical limitations were expressly written herein. Every minimum numerical limitation given throughout this specification will include every higher numerical limitation, as if such higher numerical limitations were expressly written herein. Every numerical range given throughout this specification will include every narrower numerical range that falls within such broader numerical range, as if such narrower numerical ranges were all expressly written herein.

SSFO Proteins and Cells Expressing the Same

Previously described SFOs capitalize on slower channel deactivation kinetics, as introduced by mutation of ChR2-C128, which was chosen based on the homology between channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and bacteriorhodopsin (BR), in which similar mutations led to moderate slowing of the photocycle. T90, the BR homolog of ChR2-C128, is hydrogen-bonded to D115 of BR; these two amino acids are thought to work in concert to stabilize the all-trans conformation of the retinal chromophore, and ChR2-D156 is the homolog of BR D115. If C128 and D156 modulate ChR2 closure solely via their presumptive shared hydrogen bond, then a combination mutation of these two residues would not be expected to generate significantly greater effects on channel kinetics than either mutation alone. However, contrary to expectations, neurons expressing the ChR2-C128S/D156A double mutant gave rise to sustained photocurrents that were far more stable than those from cells expressing either single mutant alone.

In some aspects, the invention includes proteins comprising substituted or mutated amino acid sequences, wherein the mutant protein retains the characteristic light-activatable nature of the precursor SFO protein but may also possess altered properties in some specific aspects. For example, the mutant light-activated SFO proteins described herein may exhibit an increased level of expression both within an animal cell or on the animal cell plasma membrane; an increased level of sustained photocurrents in response to a first wavelength of light; a faster but less complete deactivation when exposed to a second wavelength of light; and/or a combination of traits whereby the SFO protein possess the properties of low desensitization, fast deactivation, and/or strong expression in animal cells.

Light-activated SFO proteins comprising amino acid substitutions or mutations include those in which one or more amino acid residues have undergone an amino acid substitution while retaining the ability to respond to light and the ability to control the polarization state of a plasma membrane. For example, light-activated proteins comprising amino acid substitutions or mutations can be made by substituting one or more amino acids into the amino acid sequence corresponding to SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, or SEQ ID NO:4. In some embodiments, the invention includes proteins comprising altered amino acid sequences in comparison with the amino acid sequence in SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, or SEQ ID NO:4, wherein the altered light-activated stabilized step function opsin protein retains the characteristic light-activated nature and/or the ability to regulate ion flow across plasma membranes of the protein with the amino acid sequence represented in SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, or SEQ ID NO:4 but may have altered properties in some specific aspects.

Amino acid substitutions in a native protein sequence may be conservative or non-conservative and such substituted amino acid residues may or may not be one encoded by the genetic code. The standard twenty amino acid “alphabet” is divided into chemical families based on chemical properties of their side chains. These families include amino acids with basic side chains (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine), acidic side chains (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid), uncharged polar side chains (e.g., glycine, asparagine, glutamine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine), nonpolar side chains (e.g., alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan), beta-branched side chains (e.g., threonine, valine, isoleucine) and side chains having aromatic groups (e.g., tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, histidine). A “conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which the amino acid residue is replaced with an amino acid residue having a chemically similar side chain (i.e., replacing an amino acid possessing a basic side chain with another amino acid with a basic side chain). A “non-conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which the amino acid residue is replaced with an amino acid residue having a chemically different side chain (i.e., replacing an amino acid having a basic side chain with an amino acid having an aromatic side chain). The amino acid substitutions may be conservative or non-conservative. Additionally, the amino acid substitutions may be located in the SFO retinal binding pocket, in one or more of the SFO intracellular loop domains, and/or in both the retinal binding pocket or the intracellular loop domains.

Provided herein, therefore, are light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins that may have specific amino acid substitutions at key positions throughout the retinal binding pocket of the protein. For information regarding the retinal binding pocket of light sensitive polypeptides, see Greenhalgh et al., J. Biol. Chem., 268, 20305-20311 (1993), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety. In some embodiments, the SFO protein can have a mutation at amino acid residue C128 of SEQ ID NO:1. In some embodiments, the SFO protein can have a mutation at amino acid residue D156 of SEQ ID NO:1. In other embodiments, the SFO protein can have a mutation at both amino acid residues C128 and D156 of SEQ ID NO:1 (SSFO). In some embodiments, each of the disclosed mutant stabilized step function opsin proteins can have specific properties and characteristics for use in depolarizing the membrane of an animal cell in response to light.

Accordingly, in one aspect there is provided a light-activated SSFO protein expressed on a cell plasma membrane capable of mediating a depolarizing current in the cell when the cell is illuminated with light, wherein the protein exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the cell is maintained for up to about five, about ten, about fifteen, or about twenty minutes. In some embodiments, the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 (See, e.g., FIG. 1B of International Patent Application Publication No. WO 2009/131837, which is incorporated by reference herein, illustrating conservation of amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 between several species of channelrhopsin cation channels; see also Kianianmomeni et al., Plant Physiol., 2009, 151:347-356, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). In other embodiments, the light-activated SSFO protein can comprise an amino acid sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1 without the signal peptide sequence. In other embodiments, the light-activated SSFO protein can comprise an amino acid sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1. In other embodiments, the light-activated SSFO protein can comprise an amino acid sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:2. In other embodiments, the light-activated SSFO protein can comprise an amino acid sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:3. In another embodiment, the light-activated SSFO protein can comprise an amino acid sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:4. In some embodiments, the signal peptide sequence in the SSFO proteins is deleted or substituted with a signal peptide sequence from a different protein. In some embodiments, the substitution at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 are conservative amino acid substitutions. In other embodiments, the substitution at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 are non-conservative amino acid substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitution at the amino acid residue corresponding to C128 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is a substitution to serine. In other embodiments, the substitution at the amino acid residue corresponding to D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is a substitution to a non-acidic amino acid. In another embodiment, the substitution at the amino acid residue corresponding to D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is a substitution to alanine. In some embodiments, the protein can further comprise a C-terminal fluorescent protein. In some specific embodiments, the C-terminal fluorescent protein can be enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), green fluorescent protein (GFP), cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), or red fluorescent protein (RFP). In some embodiments, the second light-activated protein can be capable of mediating a hyperpolarizing current in the cell when the cell is illuminated with light. In some embodiments the second light-activated protein can be NpHR, eNpHR2.0, eNpHR3.0, eNpHR3.1, GtR3, or a C1V1 chimeric protein as described in International Patent Application No: PCT/US2011/028893 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/410,736 and 61/410,744, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

In some embodiments, the C1V1 chimeric protein comprises a light-activated protein expressed on the cell membrane, wherein the protein is a chimeric protein derived from VChR1 from Volvox carteri and ChR1 from Chlamydomonas reinhardti, wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of VChR1 having at least the first and second transmembrane helices replaced by the first and second transmembrane helices of ChR1; is responsive to light; and is capable of mediating a depolarizing current in the cell when the cell is illuminated with light. In some embodiments wherein the protein further comprises a replacement within the intracellular loop domain located between the second and third transmembrane helices of the chimeric light responsive protein, wherein at least a portion of the intracellular loop domain is replaced by the corresponding portion from the ChR1. In another embodiment, the portion of the intracellular loop domain of the CIV1 chimeric protein is replaced with the corresponding portion from the ChR1 extending to amino acid residue A145 of the ChR1. In other embodiments, the C1V1 chimeric protein further comprises a replacement within the third transmembrane helix of the chimeric light responsive protein, wherein at least a portion of the third transmembrane helix is replaced by the corresponding sequence of ChR1. In another embodiment, the portion of the intracellular loop domain of the C1V1 chimeric protein is replaced with the corresponding portion from the ChR1 extending to amino acid residue W163 of the ChR1.

In some embodiments of the stabilized step function opsin proteins provided herein, the light having a first wavelength can be blue light. In other embodiments, said light having a first wavelength can be about 445 nm. In another embodiment, said light having a second wavelength can be green light or yellow light. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be about 590 nm. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be between about 390-400 nm, inclusive, as well as every number within this range. In some embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein can be activated by light pulses that can have a duration for any of about 1 millisecond (ms), about 2 ms, about 3, ms, about 4, ms, about 5 ms, about 6 ms, about 7 ms, about 8 ms, about 9 ms, about 10 ms, about 15 ms, about 20 ms, about 25 ms, about 30 ms, about 35 ms, about 40 ms, about 45 ms, about 50 ms, about 60 ms, about 70 ms, about 80 ms, about 90 ms, about 100 ms, about 200 ms, about 300 ms, about 400 ms, about 500 ms, about 600 ms, about 700 ms, about 800 ms, about 900 ms, about 1 sec, about 1.25 sec, about 1.5 sec, or about 2 sec, inclusive, including any times in between these numbers. In some embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 μW mm⁻², about 2 μW mm⁻², about 3 μW mm⁻², about 4 μW mm⁻², about 5 μW mm⁻², about 6 μW mm⁻², about 7 μW mm⁻², about 8 μW mm⁻², about 9 μW mm⁻², about 10 μW mm⁻², about 11 μW mm⁻², about 12 μW mm⁻², about 13 μW mm⁻², about 14 μW mm⁻², about 15 μW mm⁻², about 16 μW mm⁻², about 17 μW mm⁻², about 18 μW mm⁻², about 19 μW mm⁻², or about 20 μW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers. In other embodiments, the light-activated proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 mW mm⁻², about 2 mW mm⁻², about 3 mW mm⁻², about 4 mW mm⁻², about 5 mW mm⁻², about 6 mW mm⁻², about 7 mW mm⁻², about 8 mW mm⁻², about 9 mW mm⁻², about 10 mW mm⁻², about 11 mW mm⁻², about 12 mW mm⁻², about 13 mW mm⁻², about 14 mW mm⁻², about 15 mW mm⁻², about 16 mW mm⁻², about 17 mW mm⁻², about 18 mW mm⁻², about 19 mW mm⁻², about 20 mW mm⁻², about 21 mW mm⁻², about 22 mW mm⁻², about 23 mW mm⁻², about 24 mW mm⁻², or about 25 mW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers.

In some embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein can maintain a sustained photocurrent for about 20 minutes. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein can maintain a sustained photocurrent for any of about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 27, 28, 29, or 30 minutes, inclusive, including for any times in between these numbers. In other embodiments, the photocycle progression of any of the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein is completely blocked after the protein is illuminated with said single pulse of light having a first wavelength.

In some aspects of the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein, the cell can be an animal cell. In some embodiments, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell, a cardiac cell, or a stem cell. In some embodiments, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the neuronal cell is a neuron that changes innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized. In other embodiments, the neuronal cell can be an excitatory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the excitatory neuron can be a pyramidal neuron. In some embodiments the neuronal cell can be an inhibitory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In still other embodiments, the inhibitory neuron can be a parvalbumin neuron. In some embodiments, the inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be in a living non-human animal.

In other aspects of the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins, the cells can be neurons in a living brain slice from a non-human animal. In some embodiments, the brain slices are coronal brain slices. In some embodiments, the brain slices are from the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that change innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized. In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized.

In some aspects, the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein may be modified by the addition of one or more amino acid sequence motifs which enhance transport to the plasma membranes of mammalian cells. Light-activated opsin proteins are derived from evolutionarily simpler organisms and therefore may not be expressed or tolerated by mammalian cells or may exhibit impaired subcellular localization when expressed at high levels in mammalian cells. Consequently, in some embodiments, the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein may be fused to one or more amino acid sequence motifs selected from the group consisting of a signal peptide, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) export signal, a membrane trafficking signal, and an N-terminal golgi export signal. The one or more amino acid sequence motifs which enhance the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins transport to the plasma membranes of mammalian cells can be fused to the N-terminus, the C-terminus, or to both the N- and C-terminal ends of the light-activated protein. Optionally, the light-activated protein and the one or more amino acid sequence motifs may be separated by a linker. In some embodiments, the stabilized step function opsin protein is modified by the addition of a trafficking signal (ts) which enhances transport of the protein to the cell plasma membrane. In some embodiments, the trafficking signal is derived from the amino acid sequence of the human inward rectifier potassium channel K_(ir)2.1. In some embodiments, the trafficking signal comprises the amino acid sequence KSRITSEGEYIPLDQIDINV. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin protein is modified by the addition of a signal peptide (e.g., which enhances transport to the plasma membrane). The signal peptide may be fused to the C-terminus of the core amino acid sequence or may be fused to the N-terminus of the core amino acid sequence. In some embodiments, the signal peptide is linked to the core amino acid sequence by a linker. The linker can comprise any of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, 400, or 500 amino acids in length. In some embodiments, the signal peptide comprises the amino acid sequence MDYGGALSAVGRELLFVTNPVVVNGSVLVPEDQCYCAGWIESRGTNG. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin protein is modified by the addition of an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) export signal. The ER export signal may be fused to the C-terminus of the core amino acid sequence or may be fused to the N-terminus of the core amino acid sequence. In some embodiments, the ER export signal is linked to the core amino acid sequence by a linker. The linker can comprise any of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, 400, or 500 amino acids in length. In some embodiments, the ER export signal comprises the amino acid sequence FXYENE, where X can be any amino acid. In some embodiments, the ER export signal comprises the amino acid sequence VXXSL, where X can be any amino acid. In some embodiments, the ER export signal comprises the amino acid sequence FCYENEV.

Animal Cells, Non-Human Animals, and Brain Slices

Provided herein are cells comprising the light activated chimeric proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the cells are animal cells. In some embodiments, the animal cells comprise the protein corresponding to SEQ ID NO: 1. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell. In some embodiments, the animal cells are from the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the neuronal cell is a neuron that changes innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized. In some embodiments the neuronal cell can be an excitatory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the excitatory neuron can be a pyramidal neuron. In some embodiments the neuronal cell can be an inhibitory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In still other embodiments, the inhibitory neuron can be a parvalbumin neuron.

Also provided herein are non-human animals comprising the proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the non-human animals comprise the protein corresponding to SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the animals comprise the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein are transgenically expressing said stabilized step function opsin proteins. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein have been virally transfected with a vector carrying the stabilized step function opsin proteins such as, but not limited to, an adenoviral vector. In some embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in behavior when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in innate and learned social behaviors when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in conditioned behaviors when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light.

Provided herein are living brain slices from a non-human animal comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the brain slices are from non-human animals transgenically expressing the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein. In other embodiments, the brain slices are from non-human animals that have been virally transfected with a vector carrying said stabilized step function opsin proteins such as, but not limited to, an adenoviral vector. In some embodiments, the brain slices are coronal brain slices. In some embodiments, the brain slices are from the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that change innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized. In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized. In some embodiments, the brain slices are any of about 100 μm, about 150 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, or about 500 μm thick, inclusive, including any thicknesses in between these numbers.

Polynucleotides, Promoters, and Vectors

Provided herein are isolated polynucleotides that encode stabilized step function opsin proteins that have at least one activity of a step function opsin protein. The disclosure provides isolated, synthetic, or recombinant polynucleotides comprising a nucleic acid sequence having at least about 70%, e.g., at least about 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%; 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99%, or complete (100%) sequence identity to the nucleic acid of SEQ ID NO:2 over a region of at least about 10, e.g., at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, or 1000 nucleotides.

The disclosure specifically provides a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a stabilized step function opsin protein and/or a mutant variant thereof. For example, the disclosure provides an isolated polynucleotide molecule, wherein the polynucleotide molecule encodes a protein comprising an amino acid sequence with at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. The disclosure also provides an isolated polynucleotide molecule, wherein the polynucleotide molecule encodes a protein comprising an amino acid sequence with at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. The disclosure moreover provides an isolated polynucleotide molecule, wherein the polynucleotide molecule encodes a protein comprising an amino acid sequence with at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3. The disclosure additionally provides an isolated polynucleotide molecule, wherein the polynucleotide molecule encodes a protein comprising an amino acid sequence with at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4.

The disclosure also provides expression cassettes and/or vectors comprising the above-described nucleic acids. Suitably, the nucleic acid encoding a stabilized step function opsin protein of the disclosure is operably linked to a promoter. Promoters are well known in the art. Any promoter that functions in the host cell can be used for expression of SSFO and/or any variant thereof of the present disclosure. Initiation control regions or promoters, which are useful to drive expression of a SSFO protein or variant thereof in a specific animal cell are numerous and familiar to those skilled in the art. Virtually any promoter capable of driving these nucleic acids can be used.

Specifically, where recombinant expression of SSFO proteins, such as the proteins described herein, in an excitatory neural cell is desired, a human calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II alpha (CaMKIIα) promoter may be used. In other embodiments, an elongation factor 1a (EF-1a) promoter in conjunction with a Cre-inducible recombinant AAV vector can be used with parvalbumin-Cre transgenic mice to target expression SSFO proteins to inhibitory neurons.

Also provided herein are vectors comprising the polynucleotides disclosed herein encoding a stabilized step function opsin proteins or any variant thereof. The vectors that can be administered according to the present invention also include vectors comprising a polynucleotide which encodes an RNA (e.g., an mRNA) that when transcribed from the polynucleotides of the vector will result in the accumulation of light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins on the plasma membranes of target animal cells. Vectors which may be used, include, without limitation, lentiviral, HSV, adenoviral, and andeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors. Lentiviruses include, but are not limited to HIV-1, HIV-2, SIV, FIV and EIAV. Lentiviruses may be pseudotyped with the envelope proteins of other viruses, including, but not limited to VSV, rabies, Mo-MLV, baculovirus and Ebola. Such vectors may be prepared using standard methods in the art.

In some embodiments, the vector is a recombinant AAV vector. AAV vectors are DNA viruses of relatively small size that can integrate, in a stable and sitespecific manner, into the genome of the cells that they infect. They are able to infect a wide spectrum of cells without inducing any effects on cellular growth, morphology or differentiation, and they do not appear to be involved in human pathologies. The AAV genome has been cloned, sequenced and characterized. It encompasses approximately 4700 bases and contains an inverted terminal repeat (ITR) region of approximately 145 bases at each end, which serves as an origin of replication for the virus. The remainder of the genome is divided into two essential regions that carry the encapsidation functions: the left-hand part of the genome, that contains the rep gene involved in viral replication and expression of the viral genes; and the right-hand part of the genome, that contains the cap gene encoding the capsid proteins of the virus.

AAV vectors may be prepared using standard methods in the art. Adeno-associated viruses of any serotype are suitable (see, e.g., Blacklow, pp. 165-174 of “Parvoviruses and Human Disease” J. R. Pattison, ed. (1988); Rose, Comprehensive Virology 3:1, 1974; P. Tattersall “The Evolution of Parvovirus Taxonomy” in Parvoviruses (J R Kerr, S F Cotmore. M E Bloom, R M Linden, C R Parrish, Eds.) p5-14, Hudder Arnold, London, UK (2006); and D E Bowles, J E Rabinowitz, R J Samulski “The Genus Dependovirus” (J R Kerr, S F Cotmore. M E Bloom, R M Linden, C R Parrish, Eds.) p15-23, Hudder Arnold, London, UK (2006), the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties). Methods for purifying for vectors may be found in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,566,118, 6,989,264, and 6995006 and International Patent Application Publication No.: WO/1999/011764 titled “Methods for Generating High Titer Helper-free Preparation of Recombinant AAV Vectors”, the disclosures of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. Preparation of hybrid vectors is described in, for example, PCT Application No. PCT/US2005/027091, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. The use of vectors derived from the AAVs for transferring genes in vitro and in vivo has been described (See e.g., International Patent Application Publication Nos: WO 91/18088 and WO 93/09239; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,797,368, 6,596,535, and 5,139,941; and European Patent No: 0488528, all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety). These publications describe various AAV-derived constructs in which the rep and/or cap genes are deleted and replaced by a gene of interest, and the use of these constructs for transferring the gene of interest in vitro (into cultured cells) or in vivo (directly into an organism). The replication defective recombinant AAVs according to the invention can be prepared by co-transfecting a plasmid containing the nucleic acid sequence of interest flanked by two AAV inverted terminal repeat (ITR) regions, and a plasmid carrying the AAV encapsidation genes (rep and cap genes), into a cell line that is infected with a human helper virus (for example an adenovirus). The AAV recombinants that are produced are then purified by standard techniques.

In some embodiments, the vector(s) for use in the methods of the invention are encapsidated into a virus particle (e.g. AAV virus particle including, but not limited to, AAV1, AAV2, AAV3, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8, AAV9, AAV10, AAV11, AAV12, AAV13, AAV14, AAV15, and AAV16). Accordingly, the invention includes a recombinant virus particle (recombinant because it contains a recombinant polynucleotide) comprising any of the vectors described herein. Methods of producing such particles are known in the art and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,596,535.

For the animal cells described herein, it is understood that one or more vectors may be administered to neural cells, heart cells, or stem cells. If more than one vector is used, it is understood that they may be administered at the same or at different times to the animal cells.

Methods of the Invention

Provided herein are methods for depolarizing excitatory or inhibitory neurons residing in a microcircuit by expressing in those neurons the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein. In some aspects, there is a provided a method for using the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein by activating proteins with light. The stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein can be expressed in an excitatory neuron or in an inhibitory neuron. In other embodiments, method for using the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein can be in a living non-human animal or in a living brain slice from a non-human animal. In other aspects, there is provided a method for identifying a chemical compound that inhibits the depolarization of excitatory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other aspects, there is provided a method for identifying a chemical compound that restores an innate social behavior and/or communication in a non-human animal.

Methods for Using SSFO Proteins

Provided herein are methods for using the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein comprising activating the proteins with light having a first wavelength. In some embodiments, the proteins can be activated with light having a first wavelength that can be blue light. In other embodiments, said light having a first wavelength can be about 445 nm.

In another aspect of the methods for using the compositions disclosed herein, the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein can be deactivated with light having a second wavelength. In some embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be green light or yellow light. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be about 590 nm. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be between about 390-400 nm, inclusive, as well as every number within this range.

In some aspects of the methods provided herein, the stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a duration for any of about 1 millisecond (ms), about 2 ms, about 3, ms, about 4, ms, about 5 ms, about 6 ms, about 7 ms, about 8 ms, about 9 ms, about 10 ms, about 15 ms, about 20 ms, about 25 ms, about 30 ms, about 35 ms, about 40 ms, about 45 ms, about 50 ms, about 60 ms, about 70 ms, about 80 ms, about 90 ms, about 100 ms, about 200 ms, about 300 ms, about 400 ms, about 500 ms, about 600 ms, about 700 ms, about 800 ms, about 900 ms, about 1 sec, about 1.25 sec, about 1.5 sec, or about 2 sec, inclusive, including any times in between these numbers. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, the stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 μW mm⁻², about 2 μW mm⁻², about 3 μW mm⁻², about 4 μW mm⁻², about 5 μW mm⁻², about 6 μW mm⁻², about 7 μW mm⁻², about 8 μW mm⁻², about 9 μW mm⁻², about 10 μW mm⁻², about 11 μW mm⁻², about 12 μW mm⁻², about 13 μW mm⁻², about 14 μW mm⁻², about 15 μW mm⁻², about 16 μW mm⁻², about 17 μW mm⁻², about 18 W mm², about 19 μW mm⁻², or about 20 μW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 mW mm⁻² about 2 mW mm⁻², about 3 mW mm⁻², about 4 mW mm⁻², about 5 mW mm⁻², about 6 mW mm⁻², about 7 mW mm⁻², about 8 mW mm⁻², about 9 mW mm⁻², about 10 mW mm⁻², about 11 mW mm⁻², about 12 mW mm⁻², about 13 mW mm⁻², about 14 mW mm⁻², about 15 mW mm⁻², about 16 mW mm⁻², about 17 mW mm⁻², about 18 mW mm⁻², about 19 mW mm⁻², about 20 mW mm⁻², about 21 mW mm⁻², about 22 mW mm⁻², about 23 mW mm⁻², about 24 mW mm⁻², or about 25 mW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers.

In some embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins of the methods described herein can maintain a sustained photocurrent for about 10 minutes or longer. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein can maintain a sustained photocurrent for any of about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 27, 28, 29, or 30 minutes, inclusive, including for any times in between these numbers. In other embodiments, the methods provided herein comprise completely blocking the photocycle progression of any of the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein after the protein is illuminated with a single pulse of light having a first wavelength.

In some aspects of the methods described herein, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell, a cardiac cell, or a stem cell. In some embodiments, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell. In other embodiments, the neuronal cell can be an excitatory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the excitatory neuron can be a pyramidal neuron. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the neuronal cell is a neuron that changes innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized. In other embodiments, the animal cells comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized. In some embodiments the neuronal cell can be an inhibitory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In still other embodiments, the inhibitory neuron can be a parvalbumin neuron. In some embodiments, the inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be in a living non-human animal. In other embodiments, the inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be in a brain slice from a non-human animal.

Methods for Identifying a Chemical Compound that Inhibits the Depolarization of Excitatory or Inhibitory Neurons in the Prefrontal Cortex

Provided herein is a method for identifying a chemical compound that inhibits the depolarization of excitatory or inhibitory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing an excitatory or inhibitory neuron in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal or a living tissue slice from a non-human animal comprising a light-activated protein cation channel expressed on the cell membrane capable of mediating a depolarizing current in the cell when the cell is illuminated with light, wherein the protein exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the cell is maintained for up to about twenty minutes; and wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2; (b) measuring an excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or an inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) in response to selectively depolarizing the excitatory or inhibitory neuron comprising the light-activated protein; (c) contacting the excitatory neuron with a chemical compound; and (d) measuring the excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or an inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) to determine if contacting the excitatory neuron with the chemical compound inhibits the depolarization of the neuron. In some embodiments, the proteins can be activated with light having a first wavelength that can be blue light. In other embodiments, said light having a first wavelength can be about 445 nm. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be green light or yellow light. In other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be about 590 nm. In still other embodiments, said light having a second wavelength can be between about 390-400 nm, inclusive, as well as every number within this range. In some embodiments, the chemical compound can be a member of a combinatorial chemical library.

In some aspects of the methods provided herein, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a duration for any of about 1 millisecond (ms), about 2 ms, about 3, ms, about 4, ms, about 5 ms, about 6 ms, about 7 ms, about 8 ms, about 9 ms, about 10 ms, about 15 ms, about 20 ms, about 25 ms, about 30 ms, about 35 ms, about 40 ms, about 45 ms, about 50 ms, about 60 ms, about 70 ms, about 80 ms, about 90 ms, about 100 ms, about 200 ms, about 300 ms, about 400 ms, about 500 ms, about 600 ms, about 700 ms, about 800 ms, about 900 ms, about 1 see, about 1.25 see, about 1.5 see, or about 2 see, inclusive, including any times in between these numbers. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 μW mm⁻², about 2 μW mm⁻², about 3 μW mm⁻², about 4 μW mm⁻², about 5 μW mm⁻², about 6 μW mm⁻², about 7 μW mm⁻², about 8 μW mm⁻², about 9 μW mm⁻², about 10 μW mm⁻², about 11 μW mm⁻², about 12 μW mm⁻², about 13 μW mm⁻², about 14 μW mm⁻², about 15 μW mm⁻², about 16 μW mm⁻², about 17 μW mm⁻², about 18 μW mm⁻², about 19 μW mm⁻², or about 20 μW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers. In other embodiments, the light-activated stabilized step function opsin proteins can be activated by light pulses that can have a light power density of any of about 1 mW mm-⁻², about 2 mW mm⁻², about 3 mW mm⁻², about 4 mW mm⁻², about 5 mW mm⁻², about 6 mW mm⁻², about 7 mW mm⁻², about 8 mW mm⁻², about 9 mW mm⁻², about 10 mW mm⁻², about 11 mW mm⁻², about 12 mW mm⁻², about 13 mW mm⁻², about 14 mW mm⁻², about 15 mW mm⁻², about 16 mW mm⁻², about 17 mW mm-², about 18 mW mm-², about 19 mW mm-², about 20 mW mm-², about 21 mW mm-², about 22 mW mm-², about 23 mW mm⁻², about mW mm⁻², or about 25 mW mm⁻², inclusive, including any values between these numbers.

In some aspects of the methods described herein, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell, a cardiac cell, or a stem cell. In some embodiments, the animal cell can be a neuronal cell. In other embodiments, the neuronal cell can be an excitatory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the excitatory neuron can be a pyramidal neuron. In some embodiments the neuronal cell can be an inhibitory neuron located in the pre-frontal cortex of a non-human animal. In still other embodiments, the inhibitory neuron can be a parvalbumin neuron. In some embodiments, the inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be in a living non-human animal. In other embodiments, the inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be in a brain slice from a non-human animal. In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that effect social behavior when depolarized. In some embodiments, the neuronal cell is a neuron that changes innate social behavior and/or conditioned behavior when depolarized.

In other embodiments, the brain slices comprise neurons that give rise to the social and cognitive defects in autism and/or schizophrenia when depolarized.

Methods for Identifying a Chemical Compound that Restores an Innate Social Behavior and/or Communication in a Non-Human Animal

Provided herein are method for identifying a chemical compound that restores one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing an excitatory neuron in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal comprising a light-activated protein cation channel expressed on the cell membrane capable of mediating a depolarizing current in the cell when the cell is illuminated with light, wherein the protein exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the cell is maintained for up to about twenty minutes; and wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2, wherein depolarizing the excitatory neuron inhibits one or more one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal; (b) administering a chemical compound to the non-human animal; and (c) determining if the administration of the chemical compound to the non-human animal restores said one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal. In some aspects, the social behavior is an innate social behavior and is selected from the group consisting of: allogrooming, resident-intruder aggression, isolation-induced fighting, sexual behavior, parental behavior, social recognition, and auditory communication. Information pertaining to innate social behavioral tests for mice and other lab models can be found in Crawley, Social Behavior Tests for Mice, Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, (Bethesda, Md.; 2007), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In other embodiments, the behavior is a conditioned behavior, such as, but not limited to, a conditioned fear response. In some embodiments, the non-human animal is not constrained by any hardware during steps (b) through (c). In some embodiments, the hardware is a light source attached to a fiber optic cable. In other embodiments, the non-human animal is separated from hardware immediately after the stabilized step function opsin protein is activated in response to said single pulse of light having a first wavelength. In some embodiments, the animal cell is located on the surface of a biological tissue. In some embodiments, the tissue is neural tissue or brain tissue. In some embodiments, the chemical compound can be a member of a combinatorial chemical library.

In some embodiments, the non-human animals of the methods provided herein comprise the protein corresponding to SEQ ID NO: 1. In other embodiments, the animals comprise the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein are transgenically expressing said stabilized step function opsin proteins. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins described herein have been virally transfected with a vector carrying the stabilized step function opsin proteins such as, but not limited to, an adenoviral vector or an andeno-associated viral vector. In some embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in behavior when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in innate and learned social behaviors when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light. In other embodiments, the animals comprising the stabilized step function opsin proteins disclosed herein exhibit changes in conditioned behaviors when said stabilized step function opsin proteins are depolarized by activation with light.

EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

The present disclosure is believed to be useful for optical control over nervous system disorders. Specific applications of the present invention relate to optogenetic systems or methods that correlate temporal, spatio, and/or cell-type control over a neural circuit with measurable metrics. As many aspects of the example embodiments disclosed herein relate to and significantly build on previous developments in this field, the following discussion summarizes such previous developments to provide a solid understanding of the foundation and underlying teachings from which implementation details and modifications might be drawn including those found in Yizhar et al., Nature, 2011, 477(7363):171-8, the disclosure of which in incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. It is in this context that the following discussion is provided and with the teachings in the references incorporated herein by reference. While the present invention is not necessarily limited to such applications, various aspects of the invention may be appreciated through a discussion of various examples using this context.

Various embodiments of the present disclosure relate to an optogenetic system or method that correlates temporal control over a neural circuit with measurable metrics. For instance, various metrics or symptoms might be associated with a neurological disorder exhibiting various symptoms of social dysfunction. The optogenetic system targets a neural circuit within a subject/patient for selective control thereof. The optogenetic system involves monitoring the subject/patient for the metrics or symptoms associated with the neurological disorder. In this manner, the optogenetic system can provide detailed information about the neural circuit, its function and/or the neurological disorder.

FIG. 12 depicts a flow diagram for testing of a disease model, consistent with various embodiments of the present disclosure. At 102, one or more disease models are identified or selected. The disease models can be for one or more central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The models can include various disorders, diseases or even general characteristics of patients (e.g., mood, memory, locomotion or social behavior). At 104, one or more CNS targets are identified. As used herein, the CNS targets include the properties of the stimulus to be provided as part of assessing, testing or otherwise related to the disease model. Non-limiting examples of targets can be spatial targets, cell type targets, temporal targets and combinations thereof.

The properties of the targets 106-118 can then be used to select a particular opsin from the optogenetic toolkit 120. The optogenetic toolkit 120 includes a variety of different opsins, which can be aligned with one or more of the properties 106-118. Various non-limiting examples of the opsins are discussed herein. The selected opsin(s) 122 can be those opsins that most closely match the CNS target(s) and/or stimulus properties. For example, a desired target may be the modification of excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance within a portion of the brain over an extended period of time. As discussed herein, the opsin C1V1 (discussed in more detail herein) and its variants could be selected. Thereafter, the selected opsin(s) are expressed in a target CNS location/cell-type 124. The disease module is then tested 126, e.g., through optical stimulus of the expressed opsin(s).

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward control over the cellular excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance within neocortical microcircuitry. Such E/I balance control can be particularly useful for modeling and/or treatment of social and cognitive deficits (e.g., autism and schizophrenia) that are linked to elevations in excitation.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward the use of opsins for providing a mechanism for inducing an elevated cellular E/I balance with specific spatial and temporal control. This can include expression of light-sensitive opsins in excitatory neurons linked with one or more severe neuropsychiatric diseases.

Various embodiments relate to tools and methods for controlling the E/I balance in freely moving mammals, which can be particularly useful for exploring underlying circuit physiology mechanisms. Particular aspects of the present disclosure relate to increasing the excitability of excitatory neurons, relative to the excitability of inhibitory neurons with selective spatial control. This can be particularly useful for increasing the susceptibility of the excitatory neurons to intrinsic stimulus and thereby preserving natural firing patterns. In some implementations, this excitation is reversible.

Certain embodiments are directed toward the use of ion channels that are optically controllable. When expressed in a neuron, the ion channels are designed to increase the susceptibility of the neurons to intrinsic stimulus to maintain the increased susceptibility for extended periods of time. Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to SSFOs (stabilized step-function opsins) that are stable enough to produce constant photocurrent after a single light flash over many minutes, and the use thereof for complex behavioral testing. In particular implementations, the increased susceptibility can be maintained from many minutes after optical stimulus is applied.

Various embodiments are directed toward treatments, modeling and other aspects that relate to the discovery that impairments in specific social interaction and cognition behaviors in freely moving mice can be induced from targeted elevation in the E/I balance.

Other embodiments are directed towards treatments, modeling and other aspects that relate to the discovery that no such behavioral effects are seen when selectively providing the same excitability advantage to inhibitory neurons, irrespective of profound effects on local circuit activity.

Still other embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward treatments, modeling and other aspects that relate to the discovery that the dominant circuit-level effect of the behaviorally significant E/I balance intervention is a specific elevation in baseline gamma-band (around 40-60 Hz) recurrent synaptic excitation, analogous to the elevated gamma rhythms seen at baseline in autism and schizophrenia, with concomitant quantitative impairment in microcircuit information transmission.

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to the use of opsins to drive E/I elevations and monitor gamma oscillations in cortical slices. Particular embodiments are directed toward the use of C1V1 (discussed in more detail herein) and its variants, which can be particularly useful for driving E/I elevations and monitoring gamma oscillations in cortical slices, with 1) high potency to enable dose-response tests; 2) low desensitization to allow for step-like changes in E/I balance; and 3) red-shifted excitation to allow separable driving of different populations within the same preparation.

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to control over elevated (or lowered) cellular E/I balance. This can be particularly useful for studying, testing and treatment relating to medication-unresponsive social and cognitive impairment in neurological disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. Particular aspects relate to studying and distinguishing the long term effects on the development and maturation of the circuit relative to the immediate effects of E/I abnormalities with regard to the function of the neural circuits involved. Other aspects are directed toward the confirmation of elevated cellular E/I balance as a core component of cognitive defects observed in the various disease models and patients (human or otherwise). Particular embodiments provide timing and specificity sufficient for testing the elevated cellular E/I balance hypothesis in the mammalian brain (e.g., the prefrontal cortex), and identified circuit-physiology manifestations.

A particular aspect relates to the use of the double-mutant SSFO (discussed in more detail herein), which can be particularly useful for providing stable circuit modulation for time periods that are sufficient for temporally precise and complex behavioral experiments. For instance, the modulation and behavioral experiments circuit modulation can span several minutes in the absence of ongoing light activation, external fiber optic attachments and/or optical-hardware brain penetration (e.g., using a light delivery device entirely external to the brain). Particular implementations use a property of photon integration, which can facilitate activation of cells with low light intensity (e.g., in the low-gm/mm⁻²). This activation can occur with relatively deep penetration of light into brain tissue (e.g., 3 mm or more relative to the light source). SSFO activation in excitatory (but not inhibitory) neurons can be used to produce profound and reversible impairments in social and cognitive function. In certain implementations, the impairments can be produced with little, if any, motor abnormalities or altered fear/anxiety behaviors.

Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to the use of SSFO for in vitro probing of changes in circuit properties. For instance, SSFO's can be used to elevate cellular E/I balance and to measure the transfer functions of pyramidal neurons. Experimental results suggest that such elevation saturates the transfer functions of pyramidal neurons at low excitatory post-synaptic current (EPSC) rates, impairing information transmission within cortical circuitry, in contrast to consequences of reduction in E/I balance.

These and other aspects can be particularly useful for addressing the symptomatic and treatment challenges in medication-unresponsive disorders like autism, e.g., relative to

elevations in E/I balance and situations in which the brain appears hyper-excitable and impaired in its ability to process information.

Consistent with an experimental embodiment, a comparison was performed between light-evoked activity in C1V1-E 162T-expressing (discussed in more detail herein) and nonexpressing pyramidal cells (PYR cells). PYR cells expressing C1V1-E162T spiked in response to 2 ms 561 nm light pulses, while the same stimulation paradigm reliably evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in non-expressing cells within the same slices.

Particular embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward the use of SSFO gene product to selectively favor excitation of one neural population over another. The selective favoring of the targeted population can be configured to prevent the SSFOs from overriding intrinsic excitation inputs to the targeted population. In this manner, the targeted population would not be driven with coordinated spikes directly caused by the opsins. Rather, the targeted population would exhibit an increased sensitivity to native inputs, which can be sparse and asynchronous.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward the use of SFOs to address various the hardware challenges. For instance, the significant increase in light sensitivity (e.g., orders-of-magnitude greater) can facilitate the use alternative light delivery mechanisms, and hardware-free behavioral testing.

Aspects of certain embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward identification and modification of specific portions of light-gated channels. These modifications involve identifying key portions of the channels. The channels can be identified using high resolution imaging of the tertiary structure of the channel. Alternatively, knowledge of the structure of similar channels can be used. The following description provides details of a specific experimental implementation and methodology. The present disclosure is not limited to any one implementation and can be implemented for a number of different molecular modifications at various locations consistent with the teachings herein.

Specific aspects of the present disclosure relate to microbial opsin genes adapted for neuroscience, allowing transduction of light pulse trains into millisecond-timescale membrane potential changes in specific cell types within the intact mammalian brain (e.g., channelrhodopsin (ChR2), Volvox channelrhodopsin (VChR1), and halorhodopsin (NpHR)). ChR2 is a rhodopsin derived from the unicellular green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The term “rhodopsin” as used herein is a protein that comprises at least two building blocks, an opsin protein, and a covalently bound cofactor, usually retinal (retinaldehyde). The rhodopsin ChR2 is derived from the opsin Channelopsin-2 (Chop2), originally named Chlamyopsin-4 (Cop4) in the Chlamydomonas genome. The temporal properties of one depolarizing channelrhodopsin, ChR2, include fast kinetics of activation and deactivation, affording generation of precisely timed action potential trains. For applications seeking long timescale activation, it has been discovered that the normally fast off-kinetics of the channelrhodopsins can be slowed. For example, certain implementations of channelrhodopsins apply 1 mW/mm² light for virtually the entire time in which depolarization is desired, which can be less than desirable.

Much of the discussion herein is directed to ChR2. Unless otherwise stated, the disclosure includes a number of similar variants. Examples include, but are not limited to, Chop2, ChR2-310, Chop2-310, and Volvox channelrhodopsin (VChR1). For further details on VChR1, reference can be made to “Red-shifted optogenetic excitation: a tool for fast neural control derived from Volvox carteri,” Nat Neurosci., June 2008, 11(6):631-3. Epub 2008 Apr. 23, which is fully incorporated herein by reference. In other implementations similar modifications can be made to other opsin molecules. For instance, modifications/mutations can be made to ChR2 or VChR1 variants. Moreover the modified variants can be used in combination with light-activated ion pumps.

Embodiments of the present disclosure include relatively minor amino acid variants of the naturally occurring sequences. In one instance, the variants are greater than about 75% homologous to the protein sequence of the naturally occurring sequences. In other variants, the homology is greater than about 80%. Yet other variants have homology greater than about 85%, greater than 90%, or even as high as about 93% to about 95% or about 98%. Homology in this context means sequence similarity or identity, with identity being preferred. This homology can be determined using standard techniques known in the sequence analysis. The compositions of embodiments of the present disclosure include the protein and nucleic acid sequences provided herein, including variants which are more than about 50% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 55% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 60% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 65% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 70% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 75% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 80% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 85% homologous to the provided sequence, more than about 90% homologous to the provided sequence, or more than about 95% homologous to the provided sequence.

As used herein, stimulation of a target cell is generally used to describe modification of properties of the cell. For instance, the stimulus of a target cell may result in a change in the properties of the cell membrane that can lead to the depolarization or polarization of the target cell. In a particular instance, the target cell is a neuron and the stimulus affects the transmission of impulses by facilitating or inhibiting the generation of impulses (action potentials) by the neuron.

For further details on light-responsive opsins, reference can be made to PCT publication No. WO 2010/056970, entitled “Optically-Based Stimulation of Target Cells and Modifications Thereto,” to Deisseroth et al., which is fully incorporated herein by reference.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed towards implementation of bistable changes in excitability of targeted populations. This includes, but is not necessarily limited to, the double-mutant ChR2-C128S/D156A. This double-mutant ChR2-C128S/D156A has been found to be well-tolerated in cultured hippocampal neurons and preserved the essential SFO properties of rapid step-like activation with single brief pulses of blue light, and deactivation with green or yellow light. In particular, the activation spectrum of ChR2-C128S/D156A peaks at 445 nm. A second deactivation peak was found at 390-400 nm, with faster but less complete deactivation by comparison with the 590 nm deactivation peak. Peak photocurrents in cells expressing ChR2-C128S/D156A were found to be robust, and comparable to those of ChR2-D156A (231.08±31.19 s.e.m; n=9 cells and 320.96±78.26 s.e.m; n=7 cells, respectively). Other embodiments are directed toward a similar mutation in VChR1. For instance, the mutation in VChR1 could be provided at C123S/D151A, to provide a red-shifted photocurrent with slow kinetics comparable to ChR2.

Individual transfected and patch-clamped neurons were next activated with 100 ms pulses of 470 nm light, and to ensure over very long recordings that current decay would not be attributable to cell rundown, each cell was deactivated with prolonged 590 nm light pulses at distinct intervals to determine the magnitude of remaining SFO current at each time point. Surprisingly, neurons expressing ChR2-C128S/D156A gave rise to sustained photocurrents that were more stable than those from cells expressing either single mutant alone. Fitting a mono-exponential decay curve to the ratio of Ideactivation/Iactivation over time revealed a spontaneous decay time constant of 29.3 min for ChR2-C128S/D156A, indicating that the C128 and D156 mutations act synergistically to delay the decay of the open state of ChR2.

Consistent with the required improvement for the anticipated application to complex mammalian behaviors, significant portions of the double-mutant SFO current were still present up to 20 minutes after the single photoactivation pulse. Based on these surprisingly slow decay kinetics, the double-mutant gene is referred to as SSFO (for stabilized step-function opsin) gene. SSFO is also used as shorthand for the active protein. Both residues likely are involved in ChR2 channel closure (gating), and both mutations likely stabilize the open state configuration of the channel.

Without being limited by theory, aspects of the present disclosure relate to the discovery that SSFO may be completely blocked in photocycle progression, and may therefore represent the maximal stability possible with photocycle engineering. For instance, in contrast to ChR2-C128X and ChR2-D156A, the SSFO photocycle does not appear to access additional inactive deprotonated side products which likely split off the photocycle at later photocycle stages not reached in this mutant, in turn making the SSFO even more reliable for repeated use in vivo than the parental single mutations.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward the sensitivity of the SSFO to light. For instance, channelrhodopsins with slow decay constants effectively act as photon integrators. This can be particularly useful for more-sensitive, less-invasive approaches to optogenetic circuit modulation, still with readily titratable action on the target neuronal population via modulation of light pulse length. It has been discovered that, even at extraordinarily low light intensities (as low as 8 μW/mm⁻²), hundreds of picoamps of whole-cell photocurrents could be obtained from neurons expressing SSFO, which increased with monoexponential kinetics in response to 470 nm light during the entire time of illumination. Other aspects relate to the use of activation time constants that are linearly correlated with the activation light power on a log-log scale, which is indicative of a power-law relationship and suggesting that the SSFO is a pure integrator, with total photon exposure over time as the only determinant of photocurrent. For instance, it is believed that the number of photons per membrane area required for photocurrents to reach a given sub-maximal activation (time to T) is constant regardless of activation light power.

Example embodiments of the present disclosure relate to the use of a hybrid ChR1/VChR1 chimera that contains no ChR2 sequence at all, is derived from two opsins genes that do not express well individually, and is herein referred to as C1V1. Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to improvements of the membrane targeting of VChR1 through the addition of a membrane trafficking signal derived from the Ki_(r)2.1 channel. Confocal images from cultured neurons expressing VChR1-EYFP revealed a large proportion of intracellular protein compared with ChR2; therefore, membrane trafficking signal derived from the Ki_(r)2.1 channel was used to improve the membrane targeting of VChR1. Membrane targeting of this VChR1-ts-EYFP was slightly enhanced compared with VChR1-EYFP; however, mean photocurrents recorded from cultured hippocampal neurons expressing VChR1ts-EYFP were only slightly larger than those of VChR1-EYFP.

Accordingly, embodiments of the present disclosure relate VChR1 modified by exchanging helices with corresponding helices from other ChR5. For example, robust improvement has been discovered in two chimeras where helices 1 and 2 were replaced with the homologous segments from ChR1. It was discovered that whether splice sites were in the intracellular loop between helices 2 and 3 (at ChR1 residue A1a145) or within helix 3 (at ChR1 residue Trp163), the resulting chimeras were both robustly expressed and showed similarly enhanced photocurrent and spectral properties. This result was unexpected as ChR1 is only weakly expressed and poorly integrated into membranes of most mammalian host cells. The resulting hybrid ChR11VChR1 chimera is herein referred to as C1V1.

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to the expression of C1V1 in cultured hippocampal neurons. Experimental tests have shown a number of surprising and useful results, which are discussed in more detail hereafter. C1V1-EYFP exhibits surprisingly improved average fluorescence compared with VChR1-EYFP. Whole cell photocurrents in neurons expressing C1V1 were much larger than those of VChR1-EYFP and VChR1-ts-EYFP, and ionic selectivity was similar to that of ChR2 and VChR1. The addition of the Kir2.1 trafficking signal between C1V1 and YFP further enhanced photocurrents by an additional 41% (C1V1-ts-EYFP mean photocurrents were extremely large, nearly tenfold greater than wild type (WT) VChR1). Mean fluorescence levels closely matched the measured photocurrents (mean fluorescence 9.3±1, 19.6±3.4, 19.8±2.8 and 36.3±3.8 for VChR1-EYFP, VChR1-ts-EYFP, C1V1-EYFP and C1V1-ts-EYFP, respectively), suggesting that the increase in photocurrent sizes resulted mainly from the improved expression of these channels in mammalian neurons. Total somatic fluorescence (measured as integrated pixel density) was linearly correlated with photocurrent size in individual recorded/imaged cells across the different constructs (VChR1, VChR1-ts-EYFP, C1V1, C1V1-ts-EYFP). This suggests (without being limited by theory) that the increased photocurrent of C1V1 results from functional expression changes in neurons.

Various embodiments of the present disclosure relate to opsins with fast decay constants. This property can be particularly useful for providing precise control over spiking, e.g., in order to interfere minimally with intrinsic conductance, trigger single spikes per light pulse and/or minimize plateau potentials during light pulse trains. Experimental results suggest that the light-evoked photocurrents recorded in C1V1-ts-EYFP decayed with a time constant similar to that of VChR1. Aspects of the present disclosure are therefore directed toward modifications in the chromophore region to improve photocycle kinetics, reduced inactivation and/or possible further red-shifted absorption.

One embodiment is directed toward a corresponding ChETA mutation E162T, which experiments suggest provides an accelerated photocycle (e.g., almost 3-fold); reference can be made to Gunaydin, et al., Ultrafast optogenetic control, Nat Neurosci, 2010, and which is fully incorporated herein by reference. Surprisingly, this mutation was shown to shift the action spectrum hypsochromic to 530 nm, whereas analogous mutations in ChR2 or other microbial rhodopsins have caused a red-shift. Another embodiment is directed toward a mutation of glutamate-122 to threonine (C1V1-E122T). Experimental tests showed that C1V1-E122T is inactivated only by 26% compared to 46% inactivation of ChR2; in addition, the spectrum was further red-shifted to 546 nm.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed toward a double mutant of C1V1 including both E122T and E162T mutations. Experimental tests have shown that the inactivation of the current was even lower than in the E122T mutant and the photocycle was faster compared to E162T. This suggests that multiple useful properties of the individual mutations were conserved together in the double mutant.

Embodiments of the present disclosure include the expression of various light-responsive opsins in neurons. Experimental tests of C1V1 opsin genes in neurons were carried out by generating lentiviral vectors encoding C1V1-ts-EYFP and various point mutation combinations discussed herein. The opsins were then expressed in cultured hippocampal neurons and recorded whole-cell photocurrents under identical stimulation conditions (2 ms pulses, 542 nm light, 5.5 mW/mm⁻²). Photocurrents in cells expressing C1V1, C1V1-E162T and C1V1-E122T/E162T were all robust and trended larger than photocurrents of ChR2-H134R. The experiments also included a comparison of integrated somatic YFP fluorescence and photocurrents from cells expressing C1V1-E122T/E162T and from cells expressing ChR2-H134R. Surprisingly, C1V1-E122T/E162T cells showed stronger photocurrents than ChR2-H134R cells at equivalent fluorescence levels. This suggests that C1V1 could possess a higher unitary conductance compared with ChR2-H134R. The test results suggest that the kinetics of C1V1-E122T were slower than those of C1V1-E122T/E162T and that cells expressing C1V1-E122T responded more strongly to red light (630 nm) than cells expressing the double mutant. This can be particularly useful for generating optogenetic spiking in response to red-light.

Consistent with various embodiments of the present disclosure, inhibitory and/or excitatory neurons residing within the same microcircuit are be targeted with the introduction of various opsins. Experimental tests were performed by separately expressed C1V1-E122T/E162T and ChR2-H134R under the CaMKIIa promoter in cultured hippocampal neurons. Cells expressing C1V1-E 122T/E162T spiked in response to 2 ms green light pulses (560 nm) but not violet light pulses (405 nm). In contrast, cells expressing ChR2-H134R spiked in response to 2 ms 405 nm light pulses, but not in response to 2 ms 561 nm light pulses.

Various embodiments of the present disclosure relate to independent activation of two neuronal populations within living brain slices. Experimental tests were performed by CaMKIIa-C1V1-E122T/E 162Tts-eYFP and EFIa-DIO-ChR2-H134R-EYFP in mPFC of PV::Cre mice. In non-expressing PYR cells, 405 nm light pulses triggered robust and fast inhibitory postsynaptic currents due to direct activation of PV cells, while 561 nm light pulses triggered only the expected long-latency polysynaptic IPSCs arising from C1V1-expressing pyramidal cell drive of local inhibitory neurons.

Consistent with other embodiments of the present disclosure, excitation of independent cellular elements can be performed in vivo. Experimental tests were performed using optrode recordings. To examine the inhibitory effect of PV cell activity on pyramidal neuron spiking, an experimental protocol was used in which 5 Hz violet light pulses (to activate ChR2 in PV cells) preceded 5 Hz green light pulses (to activate C1V1 in excitatory pyramidal neurons) with varying inter-pulse intervals. The test results suggest that when violet and green light pulses were separated by 100 ms, responses to green light pulses were not affected by the violet pulses. However, as delays between violet and green pulses were reduced, green light-induced events became more readily inhibited until being effectively/completely abolished when light pulses were presented simultaneously.

As discussed herein, various embodiments of the present disclosure relate to an optogenetic system or method that correlates temporal, spatio and/or cell-type control over a neural circuit with measurable metrics. Consistent with the other embodiments discussed herein, particular embodiments relate to studying and probing disorders. A non-exhaustive list of example embodiments and experimental results consistent with such embodiments is provided in Yizhar et al., Nature, 2011, 477(7363):171-8, the disclosure of which in incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The references listed therein may assist in providing general information regarding a variety of fields that may relate to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, and further may provide specific information regarding the application of one or more such embodiments, to which one or more references as follows may be applicable. Accordingly, each of these references is fully incorporated herein by reference.

Various embodiments described above and shown in the figures may be implemented together and/or in other manners. One or more of the items depicted in the drawings/figures can also be implemented in a more separated or integrated manner, or removed and/or rendered as inoperable in certain cases, as is useful in accordance with particular applications. In view of the description herein, those skilled in the art will recognize that many changes may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.

The present disclosure is believed to be useful as it relates to control over nervous system disorders, such as disorders associated with social dysfunction, as described herein. Specific applications of the present invention relate to optogenetic systems or methods that correlate temporal, spatio and/or cell-type-specific control over a neural circuit with measurable metrics. As many aspects of the example embodiments disclosed herein relate to and significantly build on previous developments in this field, the following discussion summarizes such previous developments to provide a solid understanding of the foundation and underlying teachings from which implementation details and modifications might be drawn, including those found in the attached Appendix. It is in this context that the following discussion is provided and with the teachings in the references incorporated herein by reference. While the present invention is not necessarily limited to such applications, various aspects of the invention may be appreciated through a discussion of various examples using this context.

FIG. 13 depicts a model for assessing stimuli and/or potential treatments for various nervous system disorders. Baseline observations 220 are taken 202 of behavior and/or cellular response for a subject/patient. A target cell population is chosen and modified to express a light-responsive molecule. In particular implementations, the target cell population is selected to provide control over the E/I balance in the prefrontal cortex of a subject's brain, as discussed in more detail herein. The excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance within the target cell population can then modified 204 (e.g., elevated or lowered) by exposing the modified target cell population to light. The light can be provided within a predetermined range based on absorption characteristics of the light-responsive molecule. Observations 220 of behavior and/or cellular response of the subject are again taken. These observations provide a reference point for how the subject acts under no stimuli or treatment.

To assess potential treatments, a stimulus and/or potential treatment is chosen 206 for the subject. Non-limiting examples of stimuli and treatments include pharmacological/drugs 208, behavioral 210 and/or electrical stimulus 212. The stimuli/treatments can then be assessed 214 by observing the subject's behavior in response to the treatment and/or the target cell population's behavior in response to the treatment. Based on the observations, a determination can be made regarding the need for additional stimulus or treatment 216, or the desire to test additional and/or different treatments. After the observations 220 have been collected, the observations 220 from various treatments can be compared 218 to each other as well as the baseline observation and the observations of behavior after E/I elevation. The comparison of the observations 220 can be used to assess the efficacy of various potential treatments.

In certain more specific embodiments, the elevation of the E/I balance results in social and cognitive deficits as compared to the behaviors during baseline observations. The purposeful and controlled elevation of the E/I balance allows for the testing of potential treatments in mammalian test subjects such as mice that do not otherwise exhibit symptoms of the disease being modeled.

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to assessing the effect of various stimuli on symptoms of neurological diseases. As discussed throughout this disclosure, modification of the E/I balance in the prefrontal cortex of a subject's brain results in the symptoms similar to those of various neurological disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. In certain aspects of the present disclosure, the neural circuit identified as effecting E/I balance is manipulated using one or more techniques including pharmacological, electrical, magnetic, surgical and optogenetic methods. The effect of the manipulation of the symptoms displayed is monitored.

In certain more specific aspects, the manipulation of pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin-expressing inhibitory interneurons is used to model disease states, and to identify new treatments for known diseases. For example, the E/I balance in the prefrontal cortex is elevated (or lowered) and then a potential treatment is administered to the subject. The effect of the treatment on either the observed symptoms or on the neural circuit (or both) can be monitored. The information obtained from monitoring the symptoms and/or the neural circuit can be used to provide a better understanding of the neural pathways causing the observed symptoms. The information may also be used to determine the efficacy of the potential treatment. Based on the efficacy, or lack thereof, of the potential treatment, modifications can be made resulting in a new potential treatment to be tested.

In certain embodiments of the present disclosure, a stimulus is provided to a subject that exhibits symptoms of a neural disease such as schizophrenia or autism, for example. The stimulus can be pharmacological, electrical, magnetic, surgical, optogenetic or behavioral, for example.

Consistent with various embodiments of the present disclosure, control over the neural circuit can include inhibition or excitation, which can each include coordinated firing, and/or modified susceptibility to external circuit inputs. For instance, inhibition can be accomplished using a light-responsive opsin, such as an ion pump (e.g., NpHR and NpHR variants). Such ion pumps move the membrane potential of the neuron away from its threshold voltage to dissuade or inhibit action potentials. In another instance, excitation can be accomplished using a light-responsive opsin, such as an ion channel (e.g., ChR2 and ChR2 variants). Such ion channels can cause the membrane potential to move toward and/or past the threshold voltage, thereby exciting or encouraging action potentials. Consistent with various embodiments, a light-responsive opsin can be used to (temporarily) shift the resting potential of a neuron to increase or decrease its susceptibility to external circuit inputs. These various options can also be used in combination.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Creation and Characterization of the Stabilized Step Function Opsin

Long-timescale (indeed bistable) optogenetic tools were initially developed that operate on timescales up to 4 orders of magnitude longer than that of wild type (wt) ChR2 (SFO or step function opsin gene products; -r-off=2.5-102 seconds); these mutations at the C128 position of ChR2 led to increased light sensitivity that scaled with the deactivation time constant. Subsequent work further developed the initial SFO concept, with mutation of the C128 proton networking partner D156 (FIG. 1A) for extension of the photocycle and lifetime of the open state. However, neither class of mutation gives rise to full stability on the mammalian-behavioral timescale-both showing substantial decay during the first 5-10 min- and extended illumination of SFO-expressing neurons in some cases can lead to channelrhodopsin inactivation caused by deprotonation of the chromophore and accumulation of a photocycle side product in a side reaction from a late photocycle intermediate. Therefore, the generation of a blue-light activated SFO suitably stable for combinatorial optogenetics in mammalian systems by mutating both C128 and D156 was attempted, hypothesizing that the combined mutant could potentially exhibit sufficient stabilization of the open state. Since the SFOs are activated with blue light but in fact can be deactivated with yellow light, if this additional property were maintained such a stable SFO would also deliver lateral-inhibition in the spectral domain that could further enhance combinatorial control.

Materials and Methods

ChR2(D156A) and SSFO were generated by introducing point mutations into the pLentiCaMKIIα-ChR2-EYFP-WPRE vector using site-directed mutagenesis (Quikchange II XL; Stratagene). The membrane trafficking signal was derived from the Kir2.1 channel. Mutations were confirmed by sequencing the coding sequence and splice sites. For AAV-mediated gene delivery, opsin-EYFP fusions along with the CaMKIIα promoter were subcloned into a modified version of the pAAV2-MCS vector. Cre dependent opsin expression was achieved by cloning the opsin-EYFP cassette in the reverse orientation between pairs of incompatible lox sites (loxP and lox2722) to generate a doublefloxed inverted open reading frame (D10) under the control of the elongation factor 1a (EF-1α) promoter. All constructs are available from the Deisseroth Lab (www.optogenetics.org).

For heterologous expression of ChRs in Pichia pastoris cells (strain 1168H, purchased from Invitrogen), human codon-optimized synthetic ChR-fragment encoding amino acids 1-315 (see accession no. AF461397) was cloned in the pPICZ vector (Invitrogen) via its EcoRI and NotI restriction sites. The C-terminal polyhistidine tag encoded on the vector was modified to a 12H is sequence. Mutants of ChR were generated by site-directed mutagenesis (QuickChange kit, Stratagene). Transformation, cell culture and protein purification were performed. After induction of protein expression for 24 h, cells were harvested and gently lysed using a high pressure homogenizer (Avastin). The membrane fraction was collected, homogenized and solubilized in 1% (w/v) dodecylmaltoside. After binding of ChR protein to a Ni-NTA resin (Qiagen) and washing of the column with 200 mM imidazole, ChR was eluted with 500 mM imidazole. Fractions that contained the protein were pooled, desalted (Float-a-lyzer, Roth) and concentrated (Amicon Ultra, Millipore) to an optical density of 1 at 480 nm. Spectra were recorded in a Cary 50 Bio spectrophotometer (Varian Inc.).

Results

The ChR2 mutants C128S, D156A, and the double mutant 128S/156A were generated and purified from Pichia pastoris to first measure intrinsic open-state stability in the absence of potentially confounding cellular properties. Absorption spectra showed expected rapid changes in response to brief light delivery that largely recovered within 3 minutes for the single mutants C128S (FIG. 1B, F) and D156A (FIG. 1C, G). However, in contrast to both single mutants, the double mutant C128S/D156A showed remarkably complete stability of the activated state, with essentially no detectable return to the dark state even after 30 minutes (FIG. 1D, H). The characteristic two peaks of these absorption spectra can be ascribed to formation of the conducting state and a deprotonated species (P390; FIG. 1B, C) with some interesting differences among the variants. First, a reduced red shift of the conducting state relative to the dark state was noted for the double mutant compared with C128S (FIG. 1A, D), raising the concerning question of how effective the important property of inactivation with redshifted light would be for the double mutant. On the potentially beneficial side, it was also noted that a reduced contribution from the nonconducting (P390) state relative to the conducting state existed in the double mutant compared with C128S (FIG. 1B, D), a useful property that may predict reduced accumulation of nonconducting channels and that suggests a late step of the photocycle that could deplete the conducting state (e.g. P520-* P480 desensitized state (Des480); FIG. 1E) may be almost completely blocked (FIG. 1E). The unique stability of the double mutant Cl 28S/D 156A is further illustrated by continuous monochromatic absorbance measurements of all three mutants over 35 minutes of recording (FIG. 1H).

Example 2 Validation of Activation in Neurons and In Vivo

The double mutant therefore appeared to have markedly distinct and near-optimal stability on the mammalian behavioral timescale, but with potentially reduced crucial capability for redshifted light deactivation; all of these issues required validation in neurons and in vivo.

Materials and Methods.

Whole Cell Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology in Hippocampal and Cortical Neurons

Primary hippocampal cultures were isolated from PO Sprague-Dawley rats, plated on Matrigel (Invitrogen)-coated glass coverslips and treated with FUDR to inhibit glia overgrowth. Endotoxin-free plasmid DNA was transfected in cultured neurons using a HEPES buffered Saline/CaPO₄ mix. Electrophysiological recordings from individual neurons identified by fluorescent protein expression were obtained in Tyrode media ([mM]150 NaCl, 4 KCl, 2 MgCl₂, 2 MgCl₂, 10 D-glucose, 10 HEPES, pH 7.35 with NaOH) using a standard internal solution ([mM] 130 KGluconate, 10 KCl, 10 HEPES, 10 EGTA, 2 MgCl₂, pH 7.3 with KOH) in 3-5 MΩ glass pipettes. For cortical slice physiology, acute 300 μm coronal slices from 8-9 week old wild-type C57BL/6J or PV::Cre mice previously injected with virus were obtained in ice-cold sucrose cutting solution ([mM] 11 D-glucose, 234 sucrose, 2.5 KCl, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 10 MgSO₄, 0.5 CaCl₂, 26 NaHCO₃) using a Vibratome (Leica). Slices were recovered in oxygenated Artificial Cerebrospinal Fluid (ACSF; [mM] 124 NaCl, 3 KCl, 1.3 MgCl₂, 2.4 CaCl₂, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 26 NaHCO₃, 10 D-glucose) at 32° C. for one hour. Individual neuron patches were obtained after identifying fluorescent protein expression from indicated prefrontal cortical layer under constant ACSF perfusion. Filtered light from a broad-wavelength xenon lamp source (Sutter Instruments DG-4) was coupled to the fluorescence port of the microscope (Leica DM-LFSA). Band pass filters (Semrock) had 20 nm bandwidth, and were adjusted with additional neutral density filters (ThorLabs) to equalize light power output across the spectrum. While handling cells or tissues expressing SSFO, care was taken to minimize light exposure to prevent activation by ambient light. Before each experiment, a 20 s pulse of 590 nm light was applied to convert all of the SSFO channels to the dark state and prevent run-down of photocurrents. For acquisition of SSFO activation and deactivation spectra, cultured neurons in voltage clamp mode were recorded. For recording activation spectra, a 1 s pulse of varying wavelength was applied, followed by a 10 s 590 nm pulse. Deactivation spectra were acquired by first applying a 1 s 470 nm pulse to activate SSFO, followed by a 10 s pulse of varying wavelength. Net activation or deactivation was calculated by dividing the photocurrent change after the first or second pulse, respectively, by the maximum photocurrent change induced by the peak wavelength for that cell. Negative values in deactivation spectra resulted from traces in which, for example, a 10 s 470 nm pulse led to a slight increase in photocurrent rather than deactivate the channels. This could be the result of the relatively wide (20 nm) band-pass filter width used for these recordings with the Sutter DG-4. Intermediate wavelengths (between 470 nm and 520 nm) are expected to have a mixed effect on the channel population for the same reasons.

Cultured cell images were acquired on the same microscope using a Retiga Exi CCD camera (Qimaging, Inc.) at 100 ms exposure with 30 gain. Illumination power density was 12 mW mm⁻² at 500 nm with a standard EYFP filter set. Quantification of fluorescence was performed with ImageJ software by marking a region containing the soma and proximal neurites and calculating for each cell the total integrated pixel intensity in that region, rather than average fluorescence, since photocurrents are likely to be related to the total number of membrane-bound channels rather than average channel expression per area. Photon flux calculations for SSFO integration properties were conducted by calculating the photon flux through the microscope objective at each light power, and then dividing to reach the photon flux across the cell surface, based on the diameter of the recorded cells and approximating cell shape as a spheroid.

Viral Gene Transfection

Both Lentiviral- and AAV-mediated gene delivery were used for heterologous expression of opsins in mice. Indicated opsins were driven by either Human calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II alpha (CaMKIIα) promoter to target cortical excitatory neurons or Elongation Factor 1a (EF-1a) in conjunction with a Cre-inducible cassette and followed by the Woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory element (WPRE). Cre-inducible recombinant AAV vector was produced by the University of North Carolina Vector Core (Chapel Hill, N.C., USA) and used in conjunction with parvalbumin::Cre transgenic mice to target parvalbumin positive interneurons. Briefly, SSFO-eYFP was inserted in the reverse orientation between pairs of incompatible lox sites (loxP and lox2722). AAV constructs were subcloned into a modified version of the pAAV2-MCS, serotyped with AAV5 coat proteins and packaged by the viral vector core at the University of North Carolina. The final viral concentration of AAV vectors was 1*10¹² genome copies (gc)/mL. Lentiviral constructs were generated as reported. All constructs are available from the Deisseroth Lab (www.optogenetics.org). Stereotactic viral injections were carried out under protocols approved by Stanford University. Juvenile (4-6 weeks) mice kept under isoflurane anesthesia were arranged in a stereotactic frame (Kopf Instruments) and leveled using bregma and lambda skull landmarks. Craniotomies were performed so as to cause minimal damage to cortical tissue. Infralimbic prefrontal cortex (IL; from bregma: 1.8 mm anterior, 0.35 mm lateral, −2.85 mm ventral) was targeted using a 1 OuL syringe and 35 g beveled needle (Word Precision Instruments). Virus was infused at a rate of 0.111 L/min. Subjects injected with virus for behavioral studies were additionally implanted with a chronic fiber optic coupling device to facilitate light delivery either with or without an attached penetrating cerebral fiber for local delivery to target cortical region as noted (Doric Lenses, Canada). Penetrating fibers were stereotactically inserted to a depth of −2.5 mm from the same anterior and lateral coordinates and affixed using adhesive luting cement (C&B MetaBond) prior to adhesive closure of the scalp (Vetbond, 3M). Animals were administered analgesic relief following recovery from surgery.

Results

As with wild-type ChR2, C128 mutants, and D156 mutants, it was found that the double-mutant ChR2-C128S/D156A expressed well in cultured hippocampal neurons and preserved the essential SFO properties of rapid step-like activation with single brief pulses of blue light, and deactivation with green or yellow light. Indeed, despite the reduced redshift in the double-mutant open-state absorbance, complete deactivation could be still achieved with redshifted light (in this case with yellow light, optimally at 590 nm), essential for potential combinatorial control purposes. Deactivation was also possible with 390 nm light, at a faster rate than yellow light due to the substantial presence of the P390 species, but was also incomplete due to the residual absorption of the dark state at this wavelength (FIG. 1A). Moreover, following deactivation with 390 nm light, reactivation with 470 nm was less effective than following 590 nm deactivation, pointing to a likely photochemical inactivation with UV light due to trapping in a deprotonated/desensitized isoform that is not reached after redshifted-light deactivation (illustrated in FIG. 1E), and again supporting the use of yellow light deactivation to potentially enhance spectral separation.

Peak photocurrents in cells expressing ChR2-C128S/D156A were comparable to those of ChR2-D156A (231.08±31.19; n=9 cells and 320.96+78.26; n=7 cells, respectively p=0.26, unpaired t-test). Consistent with the spectroscopic data, neurons expressing ChR2-C128S/D156A gave rise to sustained photocurrents that were far more stable than those from cells expressing either single mutant alone (FIG. 2B). Fitting a monoexponential decay curve to the ratio of deactivation/activation as a function of time revealed an apparent spontaneous decay time constant of 29.3 min for ChR2-C128S/D156A (r²=0.9139) that was 4.2-fold longer than for D156A (6.9 min, r²=0.8357; FIG. 2B) in side-by-side comparison. Indeed, given the fact that spectroscopy revealed essentially no reversion to the dark state on this timescale, remaining decay might be attributable in part to cell-dictated properties such as protein turnover. Consistent with the required improvement for the anticipated application to complex mammalian behaviors, FIG. 2C shows a typical long whole-cell recording with both blue light activation and yellow light deactivation in the setting of incoming asynchronous synaptic activity. Based on these surprisingly prolonged temporal properties, the double-mutant gene is referred to as SSFO (for stabilized step-function opsin) gene, and for simplicity use SSFO as shorthand for the protein as well.

Channelrhodopsins with such slow decay constants could enable the transduced cell to act as a photon integrator, with effective light sensitivity (i.e. photocurrent amplitude per photon absorbed by the cell) scaling with T_(off). SSFO could therefore enable more-sensitive, less-invasive approaches to optogenetic circuit modulation, but still with temporally precise onset and offset of action and with readily titratable effects on the targeted neuronal population via modulation of light pulse length. Indeed, it was found that with extraordinarily low light intensities (as low as 8 μW mm⁻²), hundreds of picoamps of whole-cell photocurrent could be obtained from neurons expressing SSFO (FIG. 2D). Photocurrents increased with monoexponential kinetics in response to 470 nm light during the entire time of illumination (FIG. 2D, left), and activation time constants were linearly dependent on activation light power on a log-log scale until the channel-intrinsic millisecond-scale was approached, suggesting that the SSFO achieves the status of a pure integrator, with total photon exposure over time as the only determinant of cellular photocurrent (FIG. 2D, middle; n=27 recordings from 5 cells). However, this also means that the opsin expressing tissue must be kept in complete darkness before experiments are initiated (trivial for mammalian in vivo experiments but requiring more attention for in vitro work). When data were represented as the total number of photons (delivered to a single neuronal soma and integrated over time) required for photocurrents to reach a fixed fraction of Imax for the recorded cell, this characteristic number of photons was constant regardless of activation light power FIG. 2D, right; 9.1×108±1.6×10⁸ photons; n=27 recordings from 5 cells), again demonstrating the pure photon integration property of the SSFO.

To validate this new optogenetic tool in vivo, the capability of the SSFO to achieve stable cell-type specific modulation in vivo in mammals was explored, using the regulation of cortical excitation and inhibition as an experimental system. As readout, optrode recordings in anesthetized mice expressing SSFO in the prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) subregions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; FIG. 2E) were performed. To modulate excitation, SSFO-eYFP in pyramidal neurons under the control of the excitatory neuron-specific CaMKIIa promoter was first expressed. Second, to modulate inhibition, SSFO-eYFP in PV::Cre transgenic mice was expressed using a double-floxed inverted open reading frame (DIO) virus; in these mice, SSFO was only expressed in the GABAergic Cre-positive parvalbumin neurons. To map optical modulation, recordings were made at progressively more ventral sites in mice injected with AAV5-CaMKIIa::SSFO-EYFP in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), using an advancing two-laser optrode (FIG. 2E) and a blue/green activation/deactivation laser protocol (FIG. 2F-G). Multiunit activity in mPFC of these mice was significantly and stably increased only in the transduced region, in response to a 1 s pulse of 473 nm light (95 mW mm⁻², corresponding to 10 mW mm⁻² at the electrode tip). This increased activity was effectively terminated with a 2 s 561 nm light pulse (112 mW mm⁻²; FIG. 2F). Significant increases in multiunit spike rate (Hz) were restricted to mPFC (FIG. 2) and no significant reductions in spike rate were observed in any of the recording sites following blue light stimulation. In mPFC recording sites (but not in sites dorsal to mPFC) the average multiunit spike rates were light-modulated as expected; in traces that showed significant modulation of activity, before activation, after activation, and after deactivation spike rates were 2.60±0.39 Hz, 33.82±4.83 Hz and 5.04±1.23 Hz, respectively (FIG. 2H; n=46 recordings in 2 mice; p=3e-8 after activation and p=0.048 after deactivation, both compared with pre-activation baseline; Student's paired t-test).

Conversely, in PV::Cre mice injected with AAV5-EF1a-DIO-::SSFO-eYFP in mPFC, multiunit activity was decreased after an identical 1 s pulse of 470 nm light and returned to baseline levels following the 2 s 561 nm pulse (FIG. 2G). In these mice, decreases in multiunit spike rate were also highly restricted to mPFC (n=5 out of 54 recording sites along the full dorsoventral track) and no significant increase in spike rate was observed in any of the recording sites following blue light stimulation. In traces that showed significant modulation of activity, the average multiunit spike rates before activation, after activation, and after deactivation were 14.82±1.26 Hz, 3.66±0.58 Hz and 9.69±1.77 Hz, respectively (FIG. 2H; p=0.002 after activation and p=0.088 after deactivation, both compared with pre-activation baseline; Student's paired t-test). Again befitting the predicted high stability of the SSFO photocurrent, it was found that modulation of firing rates in vivo was stably sustained after the brief pulse for many minutes (FIG. 21).

Example 3 Effects of SSFO on Behavior and Circuit Dynamics in Freely Moving Mice

Having established that SSFO can be used to bi-directionally modulate prefrontal excitability on behaviorally-relevant time scales SSFO was used to examine the effects of elevated cellular E/I balance on behavior and circuit dynamics in freely moving mice (FIG. 3). SSFO was expressed either in prefrontal cortical excitatory neurons using the excitatory neuron-specific CaMKIIα promoter, or in inhibitory parvalbumin (PV)-expressing neurons using a double-floxed, inverted open-reading-frame (DIO) virus in conjunction with PV::Cre transgenic mice (FIG. 3J-L). Virus was injected in mPFC as described above, followed by a chronic fiber-optic implant that projected past the skull immediately dorsal to mPFC for light delivery (FIG. 3A, B).

Materials and Methods

Mutual Information Calculations

To study the effects of SSFO on sEPSC-spike rate information, whole-cell patch recordings were conducted from visually identified pyramidal cells in layer V of mPFC. Using current clamp, a single pyramidal cell was stimulated with a train of simulated EPSC waveforms. Individual sEPSC events had peak current magnitudes of 200 pA and decayed with a time constant of 2 ms. Each experiment was divided into 10 sweeps, each 10 seconds long and separated by 5 seconds to minimize rundown. Each sweep was divided into 500 ms segments. The total number of sEPSCs in each 500 ms segment was randomly chosen from a uniform distribution between 0 and 250. Then, the times of the sEPSCs within the 500 ms segment were randomly selected from a uniform distribution extending across the entire segment, simulating excitatory input from a population of unsynchronized neurons. Empirically, these stimulation parameters reliably drove pyramidal neurons at firing rates from 0-30 Hz. In conditions marked as baseline, a 10 sec pulse of 590 nm light was delivered to completely inactivate the opsin before running the sEPSC protocol. In conditions where the opsin was activated, a 1 sec pulse of 470 nm light preceded the sEPSC protocol.

To understand the net effect of altered E/I balance on information processing, the mutual information between each neuron's input sEPSC rate and output spike rate was computed, which captures relevant changes in the shape of the IO curve and in the response variability. First, the joint distribution of sEPSC rate and spike rate was estimated by binning in time, sEPSC rate, and spike rate and building a joint histogram. Time bins were 125 ms wide, and sEPSC rate was divided into 10 equally spaced bins from 0 to 500 Hz, although the mutual information results were consistent across a wide range of binning parameters. Spike rate was binned using the smallest meaningful bin width given the time bin width (e.g. 8 Hz bin width for 125 ms time bins). From this joint histogram, mutual information was computed equaling the difference between response entropy and noise entropy. Response entropy quantifies the total amount of uncertainty in the output spike rate of the neuron. Noise entropy quantifies the uncertainty that remains in the output spike rate given the input rate. Note that the maximum information that neural responses can transmit about the input stimulus is the entropy of the stimulus set. For 10 equally spaced input sEPSC rate bins and a uniform distribution of input rate over these bins, the entropy of the input rate is log₂(10)=3.322 bits. Mutual information calculated from undersampled probability distributions can be biased upwards. Consequently, all reported values of mutual information, response entropy and noise entropy were corrected for bias due to undersampling. This correction is done by computing values from smaller fractions (from one-half to one-eighth) of the full data and extrapolating to the limit of infinite data. Using 125 ms time windows, the correction factors were always less than 0.07 bits.

Also estimated was the input-output transfer function for each neuron by averaging the output spike rate across time bins with similar input sEPSC rates. The shape of the input-output function was quantified by computing the dynamic range and saturation point of each neuron, treating the baseline and opsin-activated conditions separately. Dynamic range was defined as the difference between maximal and minimal output spiking rate across the range of input sEPSC rates. Saturation point was defined as the lowest input sEPSC rate which drove the neuron at 90% of its maximal output spike rate within that condition. A reduced saturation point cannot result from a multiplicative reduction in gain or dynamic range, but instead indicates that the input-output function becomes flatter at higher input sEPSC rates.

Behavioral Testing

All animals undergoing behavioral experiments were acclimated to a 12-hour reverse light/dark cycle. Prior to behavioral testing, animals were allowed to acclimate to the room in which experiments were to be conducted for at least 1 hour before the experiments started.

The fear conditioning apparatus consisted of a square conditioning cage (18×18×30 cm) with a grid floor wired to a shock generator and a scrambler, surrounded by an acoustic chamber (Coulburn instruments, PA, USA). The apparatus was modified to enable light delivery during training and/or testing. To induce fear-conditioning mice were placed in the cage for 120 seconds, and then a pure tone (2.9 kHz) was played for 20 sec, followed by a 2 sec foot-shock (0.5 mA). This procedure was then repeated, and immediate freezing behavior was monitored for an additional 30 sec after the delivery of the second shock before the mice were returned to their home cage. Fear conditioning was assessed 24 hours later by a continuous measurement of freezing (complete immobility), the dominant behavioral fear response. To test contextual fear conditioning mice were placed in the original conditioning cage and freezing was measured for 5 min. To test auditory-cued fear conditioning mice were placed in a different context—a pyramid-shaped cage with a smooth floor. As a control for the influence of the novel environment, freezing was measured for 2.5 min in this new cage, and then a 2.9 kHz tone was played for 2.5 min, during which conditioned freezing was measured. Light stimulation through the fiberoptic connector was administered by delivering light through a custom patch-cord connected to a 473 nm laser. The light pulse was delivered for 2 seconds at a power of 98 mW mm⁻² at the fiber tip. The results of the contextual- and cued-conditioning tests were analyzed by a Student's t-test.

Social interaction in the home cage was analyzed. Briefly, a single mouse in the homecage was allowed to freely roam in the absence of the cage top for one minute. A novel juvenile (3-4 week old) male intruder was introduced to the opposite corner as the resident male subject and allowed to roam freely for two minutes. Total physical interaction between the two mice was quantified visually, scoring social interaction as the time during which the resident mouse actively explored the intruder. Stimulation trials were conducted with the addition of a two second pulse of 473 nm light delivered via a fiber optic cable (Doric Lenses) coupled to a chronically implanted fiber optic cable or chronically implanted non-invasive skull fiber coupling device as indicated. Fiber was decoupled prior to experimentation and one-minute acclimation period.

The three-chamber social test was conducted. The test mice were introduced into the center chamber of the three-chambered apparatus and allowed to acclimate for 10 minutes with the doors to the two side chambers closed. Light pulses were applied at the beginning and end of the 10 minute acclimation period. At the end of the acclimation period a novel conspecific male mouse was introduced to the “social” chamber, inside a wire mesh cup (Galaxy Pencil/Utility cup, Spectrum Diversified Designs). In the other (non-social) chamber, an identical empty cup was placed. The designations of the social and non-social chambers were randomly chosen in each test to prevent chamber bias. Between tests, the chambers were cleaned with 20% ethanol and allowed to dry completely before initiating the next test. The time spent in the non-social, center, and social chambers was quantified using automated tracking software Viewer II (BiObserve, Fort Lee, N.J.). Mice not exhibiting social exploration preference at baseline were excluded from analysis.

The novel object exploration experiment was performed in the same three-chamber apparatus used for the social behavior tests, and using the same general method. Mice were placed in the center chamber with the doors to both side chambers closed. Light pulses were delivered during the 10 minute acclimation period, after which the doors were opened and the mice were allowed to explore the entire apparatus. In place of the wire mesh cups, novel objects were presented at random in either of the two end-chambers. Exploration of the novel objects was scored over a period of 10 minutes for each mouse as the time in which the mouse spent actively exploring the object. Objects used were either plastic balls, cubes or porcelain figurines, all of approximately similar size. Objects were thoroughly cleaned between tests to prevent odor traces.

The open-field chamber (50×50 cm) was divided into a central field (center, 23×23 cm) and an outer field (periphery). Individual mice were placed in the periphery of the field and the paths of the animals were recorded by a video camera. The total distance traveled was analyzed using the Viewer2 software (BiObserve, Fort Lee, N.J.). The open field test for each mouse consisted of a 5-min session divided into two 2.5 minute segments, with a 2 s 473 nm light pulse delivered between the two segments. Track length, velocity and % time in the center were scored for each mouse and averaged across mice for each condition

The elevated plus maze was made of plastic and consisted of two light gray open arms (30×5 cm), two black enclosed arms (30×5×30 cm) extending from a central platform (5×5×5 cm) 31 at 90 degrees in the form of a plus. The maze was placed 30 cm above the floor. For each mouse, a 2 s 473 nm light pulse was delivered when the mouse was in the home cage. 5 minutes later, the fiberoptic connector was detached and the mice were individually placed in the center of the maze for a test duration of 15 minutes. Video tracking software (ViewerII, BiObserve, Fort Lee, N.J.) was used to track mouse location. All measurements displayed were relative to the entire mouse body.

Chronic Electrophysiological Recordings in Awake Mice

To simultaneously record from sites both within the virally-transduced tissue and outside of the transduced region, a novel chronic multisite optrode (CMO) was designed for awake animal recordings in combination with light delivery. Arrays of four 25 μm tungsten wires were used (California Fine Wire Company, Grover Beach, Calif.), wound together and cut at approximately 500 gm increments, and coupled these 4-wire bundles to an implantable fiberoptic lightguide (IFL; Doric Lenses, Quebec, Canada) that consisted of a 2.5 mm diameter metal ferrule from which a 200 μm-core fiberoptic cable extended. The four-wire bundle was back-fed into a 250 gm-diameter guide tube into which the fiberoptic cable was inserted. The wires were connected using gold pins to a Mill-Max connector, to which a stainless steel ground wire was also connected. The device was implanted stereotactically following virus injection (see above) such that the fiber tip only extended past the skull but not into brain tissue. The ground wire was inserted through a small craniotomy above cerebellum. Mice were allowed to recover for two weeks before experiments began.

To record neural activity during behavior, the mice were first acclimated over several days to the attachment of the headstage and the fiberoptic cable. The mice were allowed to explore the home cage with the headstage attached for 1-2 hours each day. Recordings were carried out 2-4 weeks after surgery. Signals were multiplexed at the head-stage into a 3-wire cable that was passed through an electrical commutator (PlasticsOne), demultiplexed using a demultiplexing board (Triangle BioSystems, Inc.) and digitized using Neuralynx Digital Cheetah. The fiberoptic and electrical commutators were suspended from a weighted arm (Harvard Apparatus) to allow the mouse to freely explore a large region (such as in the open field test). This configuration also prevented both the recorded mouse and juvenile intruders (during the social interaction test) access to any excess wire or optical fiber and minimized damage to the hardware. Videos were recorded using Neuralynx Cheetah software and analyzed offline with Viewer II (BiObserve, Fort Lee, N.J.) to quantify open-field behavior. Social interactions and novel object exploration were manually scored, as in other behavioral experiments. LFPs were filtered at 1 to 500 Hz and sampled at a frequency of 6.5 kHz. Multiunit activity was recorded at 32 kHz and individual events were collected with a threshold of 40 μV on all channels.

Wavelet power spectrograms of LFP recordings were analyzed as described above by sampling the power spectrum every 2 s for the duration of the recording. Power was calculated between 2 Hz and 120 Hz with a bin width of 2 Hz. In all mice, the effects of SSFO activation were recorded using a protocol of 2 minutes baseline recording, followed by a 1 s 473 nm pulse at an irradiance of 56 mW mm⁻² at the fiber tip. Following the blue pulse, activity was recorded for 2 minutes, followed by a 30 s deactivating light pulse at a wavelength of 594 nm light with similar intensity. Activity was then recorded for 2 additional minutes. For each mouse this protocol was repeated at least 4 times, and power spectra for each of the three periods (pre-activation, post-activation and post-deactivation) were averaged across the 4 repetitions.

Social behavior experiments with the electrode-implanted mice were performed using the home-cage paradigm, as described above. No-light and light trials were separated by at least 24 hours, using novel juvenile mice in each test. The test consisted of 2 minutes of baseline recording, then 1 minute of recording after the 1 s activation light pulse, after which the juvenile intruder was introduced. Social behavior was scored for 2 minutes, followed by removal of the juvenile and a 30 s 594 nm light pulse to deactivate SSFO. Recordings were acquired during the entire time and analyzed in the same way as described for the home-cage recordings above. Power spectra for the 2 min social interaction period were averaged across mice for both the no-light and light trials. The novel object experiment in these mice was conducted in an identical manner, replacing the novel juvenile mouse with an inanimate object.

Data Analysis

Statistical significance was calculated using paired or unpaired two-tailed t-tests, as applicable. Data were analyzed using Matlab Statistics toolbox or Microsoft Excel.

Immunohistochemistry

Animals that had undergone behavioral analysis were anesthetized with ketamine/xylazine and perfused transcardially with ice-cold PBS followed by 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS (4% PFA). Isolated brains were post-fixed in 4% PFA overnight at 4 C and subsequently immersed in a sterile cryoprotectant consisting of 30% sucrose in PBS until settling (2 to 3 days at 4° C.). 40 μm coronal slices were collected using a freezing microtome (Leica), washed in PBS, permeabilized in 0.3% Triton X-100 (PBST) and blocked in 3% normal donkey serum dissolved in PBS for one hour at room temperature. Nuclear localization of c-fos was determined using rabbit anti-c-fos (Calbiochem) on animals that had undergone 1 s 473 nm light stimulation 90 minutes prior to perfusion; parvalbumin targeting was confirmed using colocalization of mouse anti-parvalbumin (Sigma Aldrich) and fluorescent protein. Stained slices were visualized on a Leica SP5 confocal microscope. To calculate average fluorescence in different anatomical sub-regions, histology images were analyzed using ImageJ. Individual subregion images were thresholded at a fixed threshold level. Mean fluorescence above threshold was calculated and averaged per region between mice. c-fos counts were performed using standardized landmarks to identify regions and were anonymized prior to counting. Counting was done on z-stacks of the entire slice volume. Data were only compared across experimental conditions in experiments where c-fos induction was performed on the same day and in the same physical conditions, and where tissue preparation, staining and imaging were done under standardized conditions.

Results

First, to evaluate the effects of SSFO-induced activity in neuronal populations on a cellular level, the expression of the immediate-early gene product c-fos 90 minutes after a 2 s pulse of 470 nm light stimulation were examined in vivo (FIG. 3C). The number of c-fos positive neurons in the entire prelimbic/infralimbic subfield (delimited in FIG. 3B) was quantified in the virally-transduced and optically-stimulated hemisphere. In animals injected with the (control) CaMKIIα-YFP virus, 335±107 mPFC cells expressed detectable c-fos at baseline. By comparison, mice expressing SSFO in PV neurons (PV::SSFO mice) displayed significantly fewer c-fos expressing cells relative to controls in mPFC (81±7 cells, n=5 mice; p<0.005, two-sided t-test). Remarkably, a large fraction of these cells were in fact YFP-positive (61±8% out of the total c-fos positive population; FIG. 3C), indicating that even most of these active cells are in fact PV-positive neurons directly activated by the virally-delivered SSFO. In contrast, mice expressing SSFO in excitatory cells (CaMKIIα::SSFO mice) showed significant increases in c-fos positive nuclei in both the virally-transduced hemisphere (1455±305 cells; n=3 mice; p<0.05, two-sided t-test; FIG. 2C), and the contralateral hemisphere (617±97 cells; n=3 mice; p<0.05), but not beyond to other areas of the brain (FIG. 3M), indicating that activation propagated chiefly locally and to the contralateral hemisphere. These findings validate the expected targeting, efficacy, and directionality of SSFO in the awake mouse.

Three groups of animals to behavioral testing FIG. 3D-G) CaMKIIα::SSFO mice, PV::SSFO mice, and control mice (either injected with AAV5-CaMKIIα-eYFP virus or not injected with virus). Two to four weeks after surgery, conditioned learning and unconditioned social behavior was tested, as well as exploration of novel objects and locomotor functioning (FIG. 3D-G); all animals received a single 1 s pulse of 470 nm light through the implanted fiberoptic connector, followed by removal of the fiberoptic cable 1 minute before introduction into the behavioral chamber, capitalizing on the stability of the SSFO.

Striking deficits were observed in both social behavior and conditioning, selectively in the mice with elevated cellular E/I balance (FIG. 3D-G). First unconditioned social exploration of same-sex juvenile mice that had been introduced into the home cage of the experimental animal was explored⁴⁹. Exploration of the novel mouse was virtually abolished in the elevated E/I (CaMKIIα::SSFO) group following a 1 s 470 nm light pulse, compared with controls (n=8.CaMKIIα::SSFO mice and n=6 controls; p<0.0005, unpaired t-test), while PV::SSFO mice showed no effect in this behavior (FIG. 3D and 2; n=6 PV::SSFO mice; p>0.1; unpaired t-test). The same mice were next subjected to a conditioning protocol performed immediately following delivery of a 1 s 470 nm light pulse. Twenty-four hours later, responses to the conditioned tone and context were assessed in order to evaluate the extent to which the mice learned to associate the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli while under the altered E/I states. The elevated E/I (CaMKIIα::SSFO) animals showed no conditioned responses (to either context: p<0.0005 or tone: p<0.05, compared with controls; two-sided t-test). Moreover, the deficit was fully reversible; the same animals could be reconditioned 24 hr later in the absence of SSFO activation, showing fear conditioning that was indistinguishable from that of the control group when tested the following day (FIG. 3E; p>0.1 cue and context; unpaired t-test). In contrast, the PV::SSFO group, in which E/I balance was reduced, showed no significant impairment in freezing behavior compared with controls in response to both tone and context (FIG. 3E; p=0.09 and p=0.56, respectively; two-sided t-test), just as in the social behavior. The behavioral deficits associated with elevated E/I balance were not attributable to changes in motor function since in the same mice, open field behavior was normal (n=8 CaMKIIα::SSFO mice and n=6 CaMKIIα::YFP mice; FIG. 3F and FIG. 3N).

Example 4 Elevation but not Reduction of Cellular E/I Leads to Quantitative Reduction in Information Processing

Next, neurophysiological underpinnings of the behavioral impairments resulting from prefrontal E/I balance alterations was investigated. In autism, a finding of 30% co-morbidity with debilitating seizures has led to the suggestion that hyperexcitation is involved, and altered cortical excitation or inhibition have been proposed to underlie some of the core behavioral deficits in both autism and schizophrenia.

Materials and Methods

Acute 300 pm coronal slices isolated from 8-9 week old wild-type C57BL/6J or PV::Cre mice previously injected with virus were obtained in ice-cold sucrose cutting solution ([mM] 11 D-glucose, 234 sucrose, 2.5 KCl, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 10 MgSO₄, 0.5 CaCl₂, 26 NaHCO₃) using a Vibratome (Leica). Slices were recovered in oxygenated Artificial Cerebrospinal Fluid (ACSF; [mM] 124 NaCl, 3 KCl, 1.3 MgCl₂, 2.4 CaCl₂, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 26 NaHCO₃, 10 D-glucose) at 32° C. for one hour. Individual neuron patches were obtained after identifying fluorescent protein expression from indicated prefrontal cortical layer under constant ACSF perfusion. Filtered light from a broad-wavelength xenon lamp source (Sutter Instruments DG-4) was coupled to the fluorescence port of the microscope (Leica DM-LFSA). Before each experiment, a 20 s pulse of 590 nm light was applied to convert all of the SSFO channels to the dark state and prevent run-down of photocurrents. Cultured cell images were acquired on the same microscope using a Retiga Exi CCD camera (Qimaging inc.) at 100 ms exposure with the 30 gain. Illumination power density was 12 mW mm⁻² at 500 nm with a standard EYFP filter set. Quantification of fluorescence was done with ImageJ software by marking a region containing the soma and proximal neuritis and calculating for each cell the total integrated pixel intensity in that region, rather than average fluorescence, since photocurrents are likely to be related to the total number of membrane-bound channels rather than average channel expression per area. Photon flux calculations for SSFO integration properties were done by calculating the photon flux through the microscope objective at each light power, and then dividing to reach the photon flux across the cell membrane, based on the capacitance of individual patched cells.

For live animal studies, simultaneous optical stimulation and electrical recording in the prefrontal cortex of wildtype adult C57/BL6 male mice previously transduced with indicated viral constructs as described above. Briefly, animals were deeply anesthetized with isoflurane prior to craniotomy. After aligning mouse stereotactically and surgically removing skull dorsal to prefrontal cortex (centered at 1.8 mm anterior, 0.35 mm lateral), a MO 0.005 inch extracellular tungsten electrode (A-M systems) with its tip coupled approximately 400 μm below the blunt end of a 0.2 N.A. 200 μm core diameter fiber optic cable (ThorLabs; “optrode”) was stereotactically inserted into the virally-transduced brain region. Recorded signals were bandpass filtered between 300 Hz and 20 kHz, AC amplified 10000× (A-M Systems 1800), digitized (Molecular Devices Digidata 1322A) and recorded using Clampex software (Molecular Devices). Clampex software was used for both recording field signals and controlling 47 3 nm (OEM Laser Systems) and 561 nm (CrystalLaser)—10 mW solid state laser diode sources coupled to the optrode. Electrophysiological recordings were initiated at the Cg/PL boundary (1.8 mm anterior, 0.35 mm lateral, −2.0 mm ventral) after lowering isoflurane anesthesia to a constant level of 1%. Optrode was lowered ventrally in −0.1 mm steps. Events were isolated using a custom algorithm in Matlab (MathWorks) with the threshold set above baseline noise (25 to 40 μV). Heatmap images were generated in Matlab from an unweighted moving average of 2 s with 200 ms steps. Moving average value was reset at the onset of external manipulations (beginning of sweep, initiation of light pulses).

Results

To probe circuit physiology manifestations of the E/I balance alterations within the prefrontal microcircuit that lead to the behavioral impairments, acute prefrontal cortical slices from CaMKIIα::SSFO mice were prepared. Whole-cell recordings were conducted in the presence of ongoing asynchronous synaptic activity induced by the cholinergic agonist carbachol at 20 μM52-54; spiking was never observed with SSFO activation alone. Circuit-wide SSFO activation with a single blue light pulse had the effect of depolarizing the recorded SSFO-expressing neurons by 9.8±1.4 mV (n=7 cells; FIG. 4A), in part by triggering an increase in incoming synaptic activity (FIG. 4A, inset); both effects were terminated with yellow light. Spectral analysis of responses to SSFO in both expressing and non-expressing cells revealed that this increased activity displayed a broad spectral range with a peak above 20 Hz (FIG. 4A-B). In contrast, pyramidal cells in slices expressing SSFO in PV cells showed a robust reduction in synaptic activity and a reduction in power at low frequencies (FIG. 4C), consistent with the increased activity of PV cells after activation with SSFO (FIG. 4D).

Together, these data and the c-fos data in FIG. 3 revealed that interventions to either elevate or reduce cellular E:I balance in mPFC robustly influenced neocortical neuronal activity, but since only elevating cellular E:I balance in mPFC induced behavioral deficits, it was decided to make an attempt to understand at a deeper level how information processing in mPFC was altered in either case. To examine the effects of altered E/I balance on information transmission in the prefrontal microcircuit, whole-cell recordings in acute slices from CaMKIIα::SSFO mice were performed in which opsin-expressing pyramidal neurons were identified by morphology and fluorescence. Neurons in whole-cell patch clamp were stimulated with trains of simulated EPSCs designed to span a wide range of sEPSC rates over time (FIG. 5A) cells expressing SSFO, blue light activation indeed enhanced excitability at low sEPSC rates but led to a saturation of the input-output (IO) curve at higher sEPSC rates (FIG. 5B), thereby causing a significant reduction in mutual information between the rate of input EPSCs and the rate of resulting spikes (−0.40±0.09 bits; p=0.011, paired Student's t-test; FIG. 5C), and demonstrating that increased cellular E/I balance quantitatively impairs information processing in neocortical principal cells. Next, to examine the effects of reduced cellular E/I balance on information processing in neocortical principal cells, acute slices from PV::SSFO mice and stimulated non-expressing pyramidal cells with sEPSC trains were recorded as before (FIG. 5D). Activation of SSFO in PV cells caused a substantial decrease in the IO curve gain in the recorded pyramidal cells (FIG. 5E) as expected via synaptic inhibition, but in this case preserved the overall shape of the IO curve without saturation and strikingly had no significant effect on mutual information between the rate of input sEPSCs and the resulting spike rate in pyramidal cells (FIG. 5F).

The decrease in information throughput for principal mPFC cells was significantly larger (4.8-fold, p=0.0144, unpaired t-test) following light activation in CaMKIIα::SSFO mice versus PV::SSFO mice across a broad range of both time bin width (FIG. 5G-H) and input rate bin width (FIG. 5 I-J) used to calculate mutual information, despite the fact that there was (if anything) a greater impact on spike rate with the PV::SSFO activation (FIG. 5B, E). Together these behavioral and informational data illustrate that, despite the natural intuitive supposition that favoring inhibition would be more disruptive to information processing, it is in fact elevations in E/I balance that are detrimental for mPFC circuit and behavioral performance, consistent with the clinical association of disorders such as autism with increased-excitability phenotypes. If the cellular E/I balance-induced social dysfunction demonstrated here were related to the circuit processes and social dysfunction seen in severe human neuropsychiatric disease states such as autism and schizophrenia, an important prediction would be that characteristic electrophysiological markers of these human disease states would also be seen in this animal model. Since a common clinical electrophysiological marker of both autism and schizophrenia is elevated baseline (non-evoked) gamma power (30-80 Hz), this physiological-marker hypothesis was therefore tested by measuring this consistent clinical marker in awake, freely-moving mice with specifically elevated cellular E/I balance.

Testing for this possibility with the requisite sensitivity required the additional insertion of multi-site recording electrodes into mPFC. While the additional presence of such a device in combination with a penetrating fiberoptic for light delivery might be too acutely disruptive and spatially invasive for the small mouse mPFC circuitry, a strategy with two important features to enable this experiment was developed and implemented. First, the recording device was designed for chronic implantation, so that recordings could be carried out in animals habituated to the recording electrodes. Second, the photon integration properties of SSFO were capitalized upon to enable not only behavioral testing without optical hardware, but also (even for deep structures like IL and PL) without any optical hardware penetration of the brain itself, at any time. To verify that it is indeed possible to modulate SSFO-expressing cells in deep cortical structures, CaMKIIα::SSFO or CaMKIIα::EYFP virus were injected and implanted fiberoptic connectors extending only past the skull (FIG. 6A), without entering the cortical surface (FIG. 6B). The directionality of E/I balance elevation in this minimally-invasive configuration was validated by c-fos analysis in these animals (n=3 CaMKIIα::SSFO and n=4 CaMKIIα::EYFP control mice; p 0.034, two-sided t-test; FIG. 6C). Elevated cellular E/I balance during conditioning showed no effect on freezing responses to footshock (indicating intact sensory perception of the aversive unconditioned stimulus; FIG. 6D), but showed a marked and fully reversible effect on contextual (p<0.005; unpaired t-test with unequal variance) and auditory conditioning (p<0.005; unpaired t-test with unequal variance; FIG. 6D). Crucially, social behavior was also impaired in mice receiving noninvasive light stimulation prior to testing (p<0.005; unpaired t-test; FIG. 6E), demonstrating the opportunity afforded by the extreme light sensitivity of the SSFO.

To obtain direct electrophysiological readouts from these mice, a novel chronic multisite optrode (CMO) was designed in which the fiberoptic connector is coupled through a guide tube with 4 25-μm tungsten wires, cut at 0.5 mm distance increments from the tip of the fiber, to simultaneously sample neural activity at various depths within the illuminated tissue (FIG. 6F). At the end of the experiments, electrode positions were marked using electrolytic lesions (FIG. 6G), which allowed us to identify the anatomical locations from which individual recordings were taken; no fiberoptic penetration of the tissue was allowed to occur. In three mice that were injected with CaMKIIα::SSFO virus and implanted with the depth-sampling optrode, it was first confirmed that social behavior was normal at baseline, and impaired following a 1 s 470 nm pulse (FIG. 6H; p=0.044, paired Student's t-test). The same animals showed no effect of light on exploration of a novel object, however, consistent with our previous findings (FIG. 6H; p=0.82, paired Student's t-test). Additionally, locomotor behavior in the familiar home-cage (not shown) and in a novel open field were not significantly altered after the 1 s activation pulse (FIG. 7A) although a trend toward reduced anxiety was apparent (increased % time in center; FIG. 7A). During these experiments to validate the behavioral phenotypes in the setting of CMO implantation, activity was recorded simultaneously on all channels and the changes resulting from SSFO activation was analyzed.

Recordings in the animals' home cage were first analyzed using a protocol that consisted of 2 minutes pre-activation baseline, a 1 s 470 nm light pulse, 2 minutes of continuous recording and then a 30 s pulse of 590 nm light to fully deactivate SSFO. This protocol was repeated 4 times in each mouse and unit activity traces were averaged across trials (FIG. 6I). In multiunit recordings from channels within the SSFO-expressing regions, significant increases in spiking in response to the blue light pulse (FIG. 6 I-J; 77±18% on modulated channels was observed, compared with −3.4±4.4% on the unmodulated channels; n=4 modulated and 4 unmodulated channels in 3 mice recorded; p=0.02; two-sided t-test).

Also observed were pronounced changes in the local field potential (LFP) recordings from the modulated channels. Wavelet spectral analysis was used to generate time-resolved spectrograms (FIG. 6 K-L; left) of the LFP activity on each channel and quantified the average change between the pre-activation baseline and the post-activation period. In unmodulated channels there was no apparent effect of the activation pulse on the LFP (FIG. 6K, left), with only a small average decrease in power across all frequencies in the post-activation and post-deactivation periods compared with the baseline period (FIG. 6K, right). In contrast, modulated channels located within virally-transduced regions showed a marked increase in gamma-band activity (FIG. 6L) after activation with SSFO, which was sharply temporally delimited to the activation period and was terminated by the 590 nm deactivation pulse (FIG. 6L, right). The increase in gamma-band activity was associated with a reduction in lower-frequency power within the same channels that showed increased gamma activity (FIG. 6L, right; inset). A similar analysis of the recordings performed during the behavioral experiments done with these animals showed consistently increased gamma-band activity in the experiments where a 1 s 470 nm light pulse was delivered during behavioral testing in the open field experiment (FIG. 7B), the social exploration test (FIG. 7C) and the novel object exploration test (FIG. 7D). Together these data reveal that the physiological biomarker (elevated baseline gamma-band activity) seen in autism and schizophrenia is conserved with selectively elevated cellular E/I balance in freely-behaving mammals with social deficits.

Finally whether the neocortical circuitry that both induced and expressed the elevated E/I balance-induced gamma in vivo (FIG. 6) could also give rise to this physiological phenomenon in itself, in the absence of other brain regions was tested. While acute slices are more refractory to induction of sharp oscillation patterns than in vivo preparations, even in this reduced preparation an 20-80 Hz band power elevations in current-clamp membrane potential was noted under conditions of moderate CaMKII::SSFO activation (FIG. 4A-B) and 30-80 Hz gamma elevations in current-clamp membrane potential using the most potent channelrhodopsin available (CaMKII::C1V1-E162T).

At high light power density (12 mW mm-2), the largest increase in power at gamma frequency (30-80 Hz; FIG. 8B) was observed. At lower light powers (4.3 mW mm⁻² and 0.6 mW mm-2), monotonically reduced gamma power along with relatively increased power at lower frequencies was observed (theta, 8-12 Hz and beta, 15-25 Hz; FIG. 8 B-C). Under voltage clamp conditions, corresponding spectra both for IPSCs recorded at 0 mV and for EPSCs at −60 mV were resolved (FIG. 8A). Together these results are consistent with a monotonic relationship between stable E/I balance elevation and the physiological biomarker of intrinsically-generated gamma oscillations in prefrontal cortex.

The data presented here point to specific impairments in social behavior as a result of elevated E/I ratio in mPFC. In principle an elevated E/I ratio could also be achieved by inhibiting inhibitory cells, although this loss-of-function approach would be expected to show effects only in the unlikely event that there were high stable baseline activity patterns of the inhibitory cells. Indeed, when AAV5-EF1α-DIO-eNpHR3.0-EYFP virus was injected into mPFC in both hemispheres of PV::Cre mice (generating PV::eNpHR3.0 mice) and implanted bilateral fiberoptic connectors for the home-cage or three-chamber social exploration paradigm, no behavioral impairment was found associated with activation of eNpHR3.0 under these conditions (FIG. 9), as may have been expected. However, a more important question central to the elevated cellular E/I ratio hypothesis is the prediction that increased inhibition could act in the direction of rescuing the behavioral deficits associated with elevated E/I balance caused by SSFO activation in excitatory cells (FIG. 3).

C1V1 is a chimeric light-sensitive protein derived from the VChR1 cation channel from Volvox carteri and the ChR1 cation channel from Chlamydomonas Reinhardti C1V1 and its variants, permits the experimental manipulation of cortical E/I elevations and the monitoring of gamma oscillations in cortical slices with high potency (thus allowing enable dose-response tests), low desensitization (thus permitting inducement of step-like changes in E/I balance), and red-shifted excitation (to permit separable drive of different populations within the same neural circuit). For this example, C1V1 variant with the highest potency to enable the most reliable dose-response was selected. To test the above prediction, a combinatorial optogenetic experiment for freely moving mice was designed, leveraging the unique spectral and temporal properties of C1V1 and SSFO to drive pyramidal cells with SSFO and co-activate (or not) PV cells using C1V1-E122T/E162T for maximal spectral separation. PV::Cre mice were injected with a combination of AAV5-CaMKIIα-SSFO and AAV5-EF1α-DIO-C1V1-E122T/E162T into mPFC to express SSFO in pyramidal neurons and C1V1 in PV cells (referred to here as SSFO/C1V1 mice; n=7). A second group of mice was injected with only CaMKIIα-SSFO virus (CaMKIIα::SSFO, n=9) and control mice were injected with CaMKIIα-EYFP (n=10). Two to four weeks later, the mice were tested in the three-chamber social test under 4 different illumination paradigms, utilizing the spectrotemporal strategy for separation between C1V1-E122T/E162T (driven with 590 nm light) and SSFO (driven for potent currents at the 470 nm peak; FIG. 10A). Initial characterizations were conducted with no light delivered, to acquire a baseline social preference (FIG. 10B). In this test, all mice showed significant preference for the social chamber (FIG. 10B, FIG. 11; CaMKIIα-SSFO mice p=0.002; SSFO/C1V1 mice p=0.0003; CaMKIIα-EYFP mice p=0.032).

Next mice in the same paradigm were tested with novel juvenile mice, while delivering pulsed laser light at 590 nm to activate only CIV1-E122T/E162T in the PV cells in the SSFO/C1V1 mice (FIG. 10B). In this test, again, all mice showed normal preference for the novel juvenile mouse (FIG. 10C and FIG. 11; CaMKIIα-SSFO mice p=0.008; SSFO/C1V1 mice p=0.005; CaMKIIα-EYFP mice p=0.014), consistent with the earlier PV::SSFO experiments. In a third test, SSFO was activated with a 2 s 470 nm light pulse during the pre-test habituation period (FIG. 10B). In this test, both the CaMKIIα::SSFO group and the SSFO/C1V1 group showed no preference for the social chamber (FIG. 10C-D; p=0.21 and p=0.87, respectively), a profound social behavior deficit consistent with our previous observations in CaMKIIα::SSFO mice (FIG. 31). Note the importance of spectrotemporal separation here: while the use of 470 nm light for maximal drive of SSFO will certainly involve drive of C1V1-E122T/E162T as well, the contrasting transience of C1V1-E122T/E162T and the stability of SSFO ensures that the behavioral testing carried out after the 2 s 470 nm light pulse is in the presence only of SSFO activity. Lastly, it was sought to rescue the behavioral deficit by compensating cellular E/I balance, adding to the activation of SSFO in excitatory cells an additional activation of C1V1-E122T/E162T in inhibitory cells by delivering pulses of 470 nm light at 10 Hz throughout the behavioral testing period (FIG. 10A-B). Under these illumination conditions, CaMKIIα::SSFO mice (with no C1V1-E122T/E162T to be activated, experiencing a pure elevation in cellular E/I balance) showed severe social behavior impairment with no significant preference to the social chamber (FIG. 10C; p=0.59) but in contrast, in the SSFO/C1V1 mice, preference to the social chamber was restored (FIG. 10D; p=0.005) by this compensatory increased activity of inhibitory neurons. As expected, control CaMKIIα-EYFP mice showed significant preference to the social chamber under both the 2 s 470 nm and the 10 Hz 470 nm stimulation paradigms (FIG. 11).

Discussion

Several lines of evidence have suggested the involvement of elevated cellular excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance in the etiology of medication-unresponsive social and information-processing impairments in autism and schizophrenia. But it has been difficult to formally test this hypothesis without 1) selective control over individual cell types; and 2) separating long-term effects of such control on the development and maturation of the circuit from immediate effects of E/I abnormalities with regard to the operation of the neural circuits involved. The tight interplay and pharmacological complexity of excitation and inhibition within cortical microcircuitry have precluded the confirmation of elevated cellular E/I balance as a core component of behavioral defects observed in the various disease models and human patients. Here, using two novel optogenetic tools, direct support for the elevated cellular E/I balance hypothesis was obtained, and circuit-physiology manifestations of the resulting social dysfunction were identified.

To more fully understand the elevated E/I state, the underlying circuit physiology manifestations were probed both in vitro and in vivo, which will undoubtedly be complex given the broad range of circuit phenomena that a cellular E/I balance elevation could initiate. Cellular E/I balance elevation was found to alter the transfer functions of principal neurons in a way that quantitatively impaired information transmission within cortical circuitry. In marked contrast, reduction in E/I balance (which did not affect social function despite dramatic effects on principal cell spike rates) did not impair information transmission and preserved the overall shape of principal neuron transfer functions. Also identified was correspondence between a clinical marker of disease states linked to social dysfunction (elevated baseline gamma power) and electrophysiological findings during free behavior in the elevated cellular E/I state. Using a novel chronic multisite optrode (CMO) device for combined recording and optical modulation in awake, behaving mice, it was found that the elevated E/I state is associated with robust, stable gamma oscillations that are generated by and manifested within the regions directly experiencing elevated cellular E/I balance. In these mice a specific impairment in social behavior but no gross changes in locomotor behavior or exploration of inanimate objects under the elevated E/I-gamma state was observed.

The effects of elevated E/I balance on social behavior showed evidence of specificity for PFC, since increasing the E/I ratio elsewhere, in primary visual cortex, did not impair social behavior. The PFC network, with its extensive subcortical connectivity, might therefore be particularly susceptible to eliciting psychiatric-related symptoms in the setting of subtle changes in E/I balance, a notion that is supported by observed of alterations in PFC inhibitory markers associated with psychiatric disease and the altered PFC rhythmicity observed in autistic individuals. Behavioral impairment under conditions in which PV-positive neurons were inhibited were not observed; notably, the ability to fully inhibit PV-positive neurons is limited by the penetrance of expression (DIO::SSFO expressed in ˜25% of PV-positive cells), and the fact that impact will depend on baseline activity level of the targeted cells.

Finally, to attempt to restore the impairment resulting from elevated E/I balance, a family of novel extensively-engineered red light-activated channelrhodopsins, collectively termed C1V1 variants were utilized, to independently modulate both excitatory neurons (using SSFO) and inhibitory PV neurons (using a C1V1 variant). Using a novel form of integrated spectrotemporal separation of the activity of two optogenetic tools, it was found that increased cellular inhibition ameliorated social behavior deficits in mice that had been subjected to elevation of cellular E/I balance.

The examples, which are intended to be purely exemplary of the invention and should therefore not be considered to limit the invention in any way, also describe and detail aspects and embodiments of the invention discussed above. The foregoing examples and detailed description are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. All publications, patent applications, and patents cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication, patent application, or patent were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. In particular, all publications cited herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference for the purpose of describing and disclosing compositions and methodologies which might be used in connection with the invention. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims.

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1. A non-human animal comprising a first light-activated cation channel protein expressed in neurons of the pre-frontal cortex of the animal, wherein the protein is capable of inducing depolarizing current in the neurons by light and exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength, wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes; and wherein the activation of the protein in the pre-frontal cortex neurons induces changes in social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the animal.
 2. The animal of claim 1, wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to C128 or D156, or both C128 and D156, of the amino acid sequence of ChR2.
 3. (canceled)
 4. The animal of claim 2, wherein the residue corresponding to C128 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is substituted to serine.
 5. The animal of claim 2, wherein the residue corresponding to D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is substituted to a non-acidic amino acid.
 6. The animal of claim 2, wherein the residue corresponding to D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2 is substituted to alanine.
 7. The animal of claim 1, wherein the protein comprises an amino acid sequence at least 95% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1, and wherein C128 is substituted with serine and D156 is substituted with alanine.
 8. The animal of claim 1, wherein the protein is expressed by delivering the polynucleotide sequence encoding the protein using a viral vector.
 9. The animal of claim 8, wherein the viral vector is an adeno-associated viral vector, a retroviral vector, a lentiviral, an adenoviral vector, or a HSV vector.
 10. The animal of claim 1, wherein said social behaviors are selected from the group consisting of allogrooming, resident-intruder aggression, isolation-induced fighting, sexual behavior, parental behavior, social recognition, and auditory communication.
 11. The animal of claim 1, wherein the neurons are in the infralimbic or prelimbic subregions of the medial prefrontal cortex.
 12. The animal of claim 1, wherein the protein is expressed in either inhibitory neurons or excitatory neurons of the pre-frontal cortex. 13-14. (canceled)
 15. The animal of claim 12, wherein the animal further comprises a second light-activated protein expressed in said inhibitory neurons or said excitatory neurons of the pre-frontal cortex and wherein the second light activated protein is not expressed in the same neurons as the first light-activated protein.
 16. (canceled)
 17. A brain slice comprising neurons of the pre-frontal cortex, wherein a light-activated protein is expressed in the neurons of the pre-frontal cortex, wherein the protein is capable of inducing depolarizing current in the neurons by light and exhibits rapid step-like activation in response to a single pulse of light having a first wavelength and deactivation in response to a pulse of light having a second wavelength; wherein the depolarizing current in the neurons is maintained for at least about ten minutes.
 18. The brain slice of claim 17, wherein the protein is selected from the group consisting of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2.
 19. The brain slice claim 18, wherein the opsin comprises at least one amino acid substitution at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2. 20-22. (canceled)
 23. The brain slice of claim 19, wherein the protein comprises an amino acid sequence at least 95% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1, and wherein C128 is substituted with serine and D156 is substituted with alanine.
 24. (canceled)
 25. A method for identifying a chemical compound that inhibits the depolarization of excitatory or inhibitory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of a non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing excitatory or inhibitory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of the non-human animal of claim 1, wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2; wherein the activation of the protein in the pre-frontal cortex neurons induces changes in social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the animal; (b) measuring an excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or an inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) in response to selectively depolarizing the excitatory neurons comprising the light-activated protein; (c) contacting the excitatory or inhibitory neurons with a chemical compound; and (d) measuring the excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) or the inhibitory post synaptic current (IPSC) to determine if contacting the excitatory neurons with the chemical compound inhibits the depolarization of the neurons.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the light activated protein comprises an amino acid sequence at least 95% identical to the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1 and wherein the protein has a D to A mutation at amino acid
 156. 27-28. (canceled)
 29. A method for identifying a chemical compound that restores a social behavior, communication, and/or conditioned behavior in a non-human animal, the method comprising: (a) depolarizing excitatory neurons in the prefrontal cortex of the non-human animal of claim 1, wherein the protein comprises the amino acid sequence of ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, or VChR2 with amino acid substitutions at amino acid residues corresponding to C128 and D156 of the amino acid sequence of ChR2, wherein depolarizing the excitatory neuron inhibits one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal; (b) administering a chemical compound to the non-human animal; and (c) determining if the administration of the chemical compound to the non-human animal restores said one or more social behaviors, communications, and/or conditioned behaviors in the non-human animal.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the social behavior is selected from the group consisting of: allogrooming, resident-intruder aggression, isolation-induced fighting, sexual behavior, parental behavior, social recognition, and auditory communication. 31-32. (canceled)
 33. A method of modeling the symptoms of a central nervous system (CNS) disorder in a patient, the method comprising: (a) identifying a target neural circuit associated with the CNS disorder; (b) expressing light-responsive opsins in the target neural circuit; (c) activating the light-responsive opsins in the target neural circuit; and (d) monitoring a symptom of the central nervous system (CNS) disorder.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein activating the light responsive opsins includes elevating an excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance in the target neural circuit while preserving the responsiveness of the targeted neural circuit to intrinsic electrical activity, wherein symptoms of the CNS disorder are temporally increased. 35-37. (canceled)
 38. A method of modeling the symptoms of a central nervous system (CNS) disorder in a patient, the method comprising: modifying an excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance in a target neural circuit of the CNS while preserving the responsiveness of the targeted neural circuit to intrinsic electrical activity, wherein symptoms of the CNS disorder are temporally increased.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the step of modifying an E/I balance includes applying optical stimulus to exogenous light-responsive ion channels that are expressed in cells of the targeted neural circuit of the CNS. 40-42. (canceled)
 43. A method comprising: assessing the effects of a treatment for a central nervous system (CNS) disorder by expressing light-responsive opsins in a target neural circuit associated with the CNS disorder; activating the light-responsive opsins in the target neural circuit, wherein symptoms of the CNS disorder are increased; applying the treatment; and monitoring the symptoms of the CNS disorder.
 44. A method for assessing the effects of a treatment for substance dependence, the method comprising: artificially inducing a central nervous system (CNS) disorder in an animal by activating the light-responsive opsins in a target neural circuit associated with the CNS disorder, wherein symptoms of the CNS disorder are increased; applying the treatment; and monitoring the symptoms of the CNS disorder.
 45. A system comprising: a set of neurons associated with a CNS disorder; a drug delivery device for providing drugs to the set of neurons; and a monitoring device for assessing activity of the set of neurons in response to the drugs being provided to the set of neurons.
 46. The system of claim 45, wherein the set of neurons include light-responsive opsins, and wherein the system further includes an optical delivery system for exciting the neurons by activating the light-responsive opsins.
 47. The system of claim 45, wherein the monitoring device is further configured to assess the activity of the set of neurons by monitoring electrical activation of the set of neurons.
 48. The system of claim 45, wherein the monitoring device is further configured to assess the activity of the set of neurons by monitoring electrical activation of the set of neurons.
 49. (canceled)
 50. A method comprising: elevating an excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance in a targeted neural circuit in a prefrontal cortex of a subject/patient while preserving the responsiveness of the targeted neural circuit to intrinsic electrical activity, wherein symptoms of a disorder are temporally increased; introducing a stimulus to the subject; and monitoring the symptoms of the disorder.
 51. The method of claim 50, further including assessing the effect of the stimulus on the symptoms.
 52. The method of claim 50, wherein the symptoms of the disorder include symptoms of schizophrenia or symptoms of autism.
 53. (canceled)
 54. The method of claim 50, wherein the stimulus is a drug-based treatment or a phychological-based treatment.
 55. (canceled)
 56. The method of claim 54, wherein pyramidal cells and parvalbumin cells in the prefrontal cortex are monitored for an effect of the drug-based treatment.
 57. The method of claim 50, further including determining the relative effect of excitatory pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin-expressing inhibitory interneurons in the prefrontal cortex on the E/I balance in the targeted neural circuit.
 58. The method of claim 57, further including assessing the relative effect of a drug on the pyramidal neurons and the parvalbumin interneurons.
 59. The method of claim 50, wherein the stimulus: a) inhibits pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex; b) excites pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex; c) inhibits inhibitory or parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the prefrontal cortex; d) excites inhibitory or parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the prefrontal cortex; or e) excites one of a set of pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the prefrontal cortex and inhibiting the other one of the set of pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the prefrontal cortex. 60-67. (canceled)
 68. A method comprising: lowering an excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance in a targeted neural circuit in a prefrontal cortex of a subject while preserving the responsiveness of the targeted neural circuit to intrinsic electrical activity; introducing a stimulus to the subject; and monitoring the symptoms of the disorder. 